Chapter Two: Textual References to Divine Stones and Trees

Chapter Two: Textual References to Divine Stones and Trees

I. Introduction:

In the earliest written records, Chinese people, like many other peoples in the world, are represented as already practising the worship of natural objects (cf. Hartland 1917b; Bonsall 1934:22; Edsman 1987:49). Early Chinese writers tell us that Fuxi, a mytho-historical ruler, was the first emperor to organise sacrifices to, and worship of certain natural features. In this he was followed by the Yellow Emperor, also a mytho-historical emperor, who first established the worship of the sun, the moon, and the five planets (Giles 1905:8). The Shijing (the Book of Odes) refers this sacrifice as far back as the period of the mytho-historical emperor Shun, and there is ample evidence that in the days of Confucius it was offered in all the feudal states into which the kingdom was then divided, not only on regular occasions, but also in times of flood, drought, pestilence, or illness of the ruler.

The worship of natural objects was, so far as we can learn from records, at first purely local, such as the hills, streams and so on as the most conspicuous natural features of the land in which Chinese lived (e.g. Berkovits and others 1969:76; Burkhardt 1958c:56f; Allan 1979:3). There is an ancient rite called the "Wang" ("to Look Forwards"), and the very name of this sacrifice suggests that it was offered in the neighbourhood of the particular hill or stream which was the object of worship (Bonsall 1934:22; Granet 1975:73). For example, the river Fen was an object of worship in the Wang sacrifice (Bonsall 1934:27). An essential element of this worship was the belief in an intimate connection between human conduct and natural phenomena. The Shijing insists that when bad government prevails, not only is man thrown into confusion, but the elements themselves are disturbed, and the beasts and vegetation depart from their proper course (Bonsall 1934:24).

Later on, some of these natural features were objectified in the ancient altar, which in time came to be thought of as the guardian deity of the place (Day 1974:61-62), while some worships of natural features became the occasion for big festivals, for instance the worship of the moon. By the beginning of the Qin Dynasty, in 219 BCE, the festival had developed into one of many colourful activities, and took a strong hold in the religious activities of a majority of the population in Chinese society (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:95-7). From the Tang Dynasty (713-905 CE.) onwards, it has been a universal custom for the Chinese family to gather all its members from far and wide once each year, and worship the moon together.

In the present chapter, I am not able to give a complete account of Chinese worship of natural objects. Instead, I shall employ some textual data to give a general portrait of divine stones and trees - which are directly relevant to this thesis.

II. Textual References to Divine Stones:

There are some textual references relating to divine stones.(note.1) One of the most frequently mentioned is the anecdote about the spiritual bond between the eccentric artist Mifu (1051-1107) and his Shixiong, "the Elder Brother Stone" (cf. Hay 1985:33-5; Wang Jing 1992:178). When this eccentric artist encountered a big stone, he regarded it as divine, bowed down with respect and called it "the Elder Brother Stone". In addition to the anecdote, rain-making stones, evil-warding stones, fertility stones, and Geomancy stones are well-recorded in texts.

1, Rain-making Stones:

Before the invention of modern irrigation systems, China was plagued with unpredictable rains and frequent droughts, and consequently the Chinese people have always felt a great concern for the provision of the most important natural source of water - rain in due season. However, this concern for timely rains has not been passive. On the contrary, it has manifested itself in numerous rainmaking "methods" intended to insure a sufficiency of water. These methods covered a full range of procedures from benign prayers through violent coercion of the rain deities (Cohen 1978:244).(note.2) For instance, there are legends about stones with rain-making capability. The first example of this comes from a text Jingzhouji written by Sheng Hongzhi during the fifth century. In Hengshan (County) of Hebei Province,

... there is a solitary mountain standing high and precipitous. On its north-east side there is a stone cave. If one takes a candle and goes in about one hundred paces there will be two big stones standing about ten feet apart. The common name for one is the Yang Stone, and for the other the Yin Stone. When there is calamity from drought or flood, one whips the Yang stone and then it rains, or one whips the Yin Stone and the sky clears (Cohen 1978:250).

In this instance, the underlying conception seems to be that one whips the stone that is overactive in its function. In other words, since Yang produces heat and dryness, when it produces too much it must forcibly be caused to reduce its energy and allow the Yin, which produces cold and wetness, to function, and vice versa (Cohen 1978:250).

A similar method texted also in Jingzhouji produced mixed results. The text says that if one takes a torch into a stone cave and goes in about one hundred paces, there will be two big stones, both standing erect in the cave about ten feet apart. They are commonly called the Yin and Yang Stones. The Yin Stone is always moist and Yang Stone is always parched. Whenever floods or drought are beyond control, the local people dress in fine costumes and ornaments, and go into the cave. If there is drought they whip the Yin Stone, and in due time it rains. If there is excessive rain then they whip the Yang Stone, and immediately the sky clears. According to the tradition that has been handed down, this is always efficacious (Cohen 1978:250-51). However, in this procedure, there were sometimes unpleasant consequences for the supplicant, because the one who wields the whip does not live long afterwards. Consequently, people loathe this custom and do not perform it (Cohen 1978:250-51).

In this second report one whips the stone to activate its energy, whereas in the first report the overactive stone was scourged. The associations of the Yinyang Stones with rain and drought, respectively, are conventional and were also emphasised in Dong Zhongshu's essays on making and stopping rain (Cohen 1978:251).

So far, it is clear that the notion of "whipping the rain- making stones to produce rain", similar to that of medical treatment and geomancy, is based on the principle of the Yinyang balance.(note.3) At least since the late Zhou Period (fourth century BCE.), Chinese have believed that there are two opposing but interrelated active energies in the world (cf. Paper 1990:27).

Chinese characters for Yin and Yang signify the shadowy and sunny sides respectively of the same mountain, which indicates the idea of two sides of the same existence, very similar to the Western saying: "two sides of the same coin." Yang represents sunshine, light, warm, positivity, masculinity, and associated with odd numbers (I shall translate the word "Yang" "positive energy" hereinafter). The Yin state is cloudy, dark, cold, negative, feminine, the earthy, and associated with even numbers (I shall translate the word "Yin" "negative energy" hereinafter) (cf. De Groot 1976:929). This conception implies that all things must have two sides, two aspects, two genders, or two energies. If the two interrelated active energies are balanced, the weather will be good.

2, Evil-warding Stones:

The custom of using stones to ward off evil spirits has existed for more than a thousand years. Among them, the most frequently found are "Shi Gandang", so called by modern people because these words are inscribed upon them. According to Werner (1977:427), the use of these stones is mentioned as occurring in the Tang Dynasty, about 770 BCE, in the reign of the Emperor Taizong (763-80 CE.), and also in the reign-period 1041-9 CE. of the Emperor Renzong (1023-64 CE.) of the Song Dynasty. Nowadays, we can find these stones even in Japan, Korea and many other Asian countries. Usually, they are placed in front of the main gate of a house or at the entrance of a street, or else at places subject to evil influences (cf. Wang Jing 1992:71).

In present-day Taiwan, I discovered many stones of this type bearing the inscription "Shi Gandang" or "Taishan Shi Gandang". I also found that the top of some of these stones are carved with a character "Fo" ("Buddha") or an image of a tiger's head whose forehead bears the character "Wang" (i.e. King). The term "Taishan" means Mt. Tai, the Sacred Mountain of the East which is located in Shandong Province. According to historical records, those who were named after "Shi" ("Stone") were numerous in Shandong. In later dynasties, people also adopted the character for surnames. The term "Gandang" literally means "daring to undertake formidable tasks" or "invincible in the face of enemies". Thus, "Shi Gandang" means "Stone that dares to undertake formidable tasks in the face of enemies" (cf. Werner 1977:427; Wang Jing 1992:71).

Chinese people believe that Mt. Tai is itself a deity or "Buddha", a powerful deity as well. Therefore, the inscription on these stones of "Shi Gandang", "Taishan", "Fo" ("Buddha") and/or an image of a tiger's head on these stones is a reinforcement of their power.(note.4)

3, Fertility Stones:

Chinese divine stones are commonly connected with fertilizing capability. The most typical of them is the story of the Stone Monkey in the well-known book entitled "The Travel to the West (Xiyouji)". The story says that a giant stone had existed since the creation of the world. It had been magically impregnated by the pure essences of Heaven and the fine scents of Earth, the vigor of sunshine and the grace of moonlight. One day the stone split open, gave birth to a stone egg, and developed into a stone monkey, complete with every organ and limb (Wu Ch'eng-en, trans. by Waley 1965:11).

In addition to the Stone Monkey, we know that the ancient Chinese hero "Houji", as well as "Qi", was said to be born of a stone (Granet 1975:92). Moreover, it is said that in the southeastern bank of the Horse Lake, a stone in the east gave birth to a little pebble; the stone in the west was pregnant with a pebble. People asked for their offspring and got their wishes fulfilled. They were thus named the birth-giving stones (cf. Wang Jing 1992:77).

Wang Jing (1992:77) also quotes two more legends relating to the birth-giving stones. The first is that Gaolin's mother once made an ablution in a river.

... She came across a stone of shiny colours and smooth texture, and brought it back with her. That night she dreamed of a man dressed as an immortal addressing her, "The stone is the sperm of the floating stone chime. If you treasure it dearly you will surely give birth to a son." Awakened from the dream in a shock, she sweated all over her body. In a short while, she became pregnant and gave birth to a son ...

The second legend states that in Sichuan Province there are two stones, separated by a river.

[They] faced each other like man and wife. According to ancient legends, the stone in the east prayed for a child from the stone in the west, and returned with one. Therefore people who did not have offspring used to go there to pray. Their prayers were answered efficaciously (Wang Jing 1992:77-78)

Besides, in the famous book "Dongmingji", we find a noteworthy record that a country named Tiaoji offered a Horse- liver Stone as a tribute to the Court of China. It could be mixed up with the nine-winding cinnabar. Those who brushed their grey hair with this stone could change it black again (qtd. in Wang Jing 1992:75). This stone, though not a birth-giving stone, is able to change grey hair, a sign of aging and decline, to black hair, the symbol of youth and energy, and can therefore be counted as a life-giving stone.

In his masterpiece (1958a; 1958b; 1958c), Burkhardt also notes that some divine stone in Hong Kong Island and the New Territories are fertility stones. These stones receive their tribute from engaged couples whose duty it is to ensure the perpetuation of the clan.

4, Geomancy Stones:

One of Graham's contributions (1961:114-15) to this subject is his finding regarding "Fengshui Shi" or "Geomancy Stones" near the Yangtze River, Southwest China. He reports that the stones regarded as the Geomancy Stone were numerous in this area and they are very often stones that are prominent in the landscape and strange and striking in appearance. Such stones are believed to affect for good "fengshui or "geomancy" of the family, city, or region concerned, they must not be cut or injured, for that would spoil the "geomancy" and bring calamities instead of good fortune to those involved.

For example, somewhere on the north shore of the Yangtze River (Graham 1961:114f), there is a strange-looking rock that for decades has been the Geomancy Stone of an important family. A large, round, pointed rock that resembles the upright piece of wood to which boatmen attach their oars is the Geomancy Stone of the nearby village. Across the Yangtze River from Anbian City, is a large rock on which many boats have been wrecked every year, with much loss of life and property. It could easily be broken to pieces and removed at the time of low water, but the people are afraid to do so. It is the Geomancy Stone of Anbian, and if it should be injured or destroyed, much harm would ensue to the people of Anbian. (note.5)

III. Textual References to Divine Trees:

The belief in sacred trees is also wide-spread in the Chinese world. There are many stories in Chinese texts regarding trees that have performed miracles or cured people's illness. There are records even relating that trees cried aloud with pain when they were cut down (Morgan 1942:110). There is a textual record that certain trees in Zhejiang got official recognition as deities (Eberhard 1970:23, 256). In the historical book Taiping Guangji (XXV, 315. 41a; tenth century), it is said that there existed a tree in Jiangxi Province which received girls, sheep, and pigs as sacrifices (Eberhard 1970:23, 256).

Moreover, according to the records of certain field researchers, divine trees are still venerated in various sequestered corners of Chinese society such as Hong Kong (Burkhardt 1958a:122; 1958b:151), Zhejiang Province, the south of Guangdong Province, Guangxi Province (Eberhard 1970:21-3), Sichuan Province (Graham 1936:61).(note.6) In the following paragraphs, I shall introduce four types of divine trees: geomancy trees, miracle trees, the tree Land God, and temple trees of the Land God. (note.7)

1, Geomancy Trees:

There are a great many geomancy trees in West China as described by Graham (1961:113-14). The geomancy tree may be a banyan, a cypress, a pine, or some other kind of a tree, but it is always a large and/or old tree. He reports that near the sacred cave called "Jinsha Dong" ("the Golden-sand Cave"), there is the geomancy tree of a powerful local family. Near a monastery on Mt. Emei is another great pine tree that is the geomancy tree of a city. In the rear of another monastery on Mt. Emei, inside the temple and growing up through the roof is a great pine tree that is the geomancy tree of Emei County and is also worshipped as a god (cf. Frese & Gray 1987:27).

Chinese people love Nature. The natural objects such as mountain, water, tree, and stone are synonymous with Nature. They are main foci of Chinese poetry and painting. A place consisting of these natural objects is generally regarded as a good geomancy place. Mountains shelter and protect the geomancy place. In places where mountains do not exist, big stones and trees may serve the same function of mountains. Geomancy trees in their places (e.g. family, city, or region, etc.), together with the geomancy stones described above, must not be cut or injured, for that would spoil the "geomancy". I think the reason is explainable according to Chinese cosmological ideas, especially of "the Five Elements (Wuxing)", that is, a stone or tree should be located at a certain point of a place which is regarded as a micro-cosmos, in order to induce a harmonious environment (cf. Feuchtwang 1974a; Wright 1977).

2, Miracle Trees:

Trees that are venerated are usually large and/or elderly. However, ordinary trees can also be regarded as gods if they perform miracles. For example, in the 1920's in Ding County of Hebei Province, there was the tale of a sick man who was told in a dream that he should make a drink from the bark of a certain old tree at the edge of a village. He did this and got well. The story spread; others strickened with sickness did the same, and many got well. Soon the tree became a busy shrine, bedecked with many banners presented by grateful worshippers to exalt the magical power of the tree god (Gamble 1954:412; cf. Yang 1961:353).

There is a legend that once during a war the enemy wanted to slaughter the people of a city, but would be willing to spare whoever was three feet above the ground. So people all climbed the trees and thus were saved. They regarded it as a miracle performed by the trees. Thereupon, the trees got temples and sacrifices (Eberhard 1970:255-56).

Feng (1970:20-21) also mentions a similar legend that at one time under a dynasty, a city was supposed to be destroyed, and the only favour that the highest official was able to obtain was that everything located three feet or more above ground might be saved. Thereupon, the entire populace climbed up trees, so as not to die. For this reason, the trees were later considered to be gods who saved their lives. Temples were built in their honour and sacrifices made.

3, Tree Land God:

Some sacred trees are specifically considered as the Land God himself. Eberhard (1970:21-22) noticed that an enormous camphor tree with a built-in niche containing incense cones and an earthenware dish for sacrifices is worshipped as the Land God. Burkhardt (1958a:70) also mentions that in the New Territories, almost every village has a sacred tree marked with honourific inscriptions which are worshipped as the Land God. some more

4, Temple Tree of the Land God:

Many scholars state that the altars of the Land God are usually built in front of or beside a huge tree (e.g. Proksch 1984:118; Overmyer 1987:260). These trees, though not worshipped, are regarded as divine. For instance, according to the field work of Chamberlayne (1966:170) in the North of Hebei Province, many shrines for the Land God have only the simple form of a small altar with a tree and a bell. The bell is of course a religious instrument and the tree is, I think, the temple tree of the Land God.

There is a story relating to this type of tree in the Chinese classical book "Zhuangzi". I quote the story as follows:

A wandering carpenter, called Stone, saw on his travels a gigantic old oak tree standing in a field near an earth- altar. The carpenter said to his apprentice, who was admiring the oak: This is a useless tree. If you wanted to make a ship, it would soon rot; if you wanted to make tools, they would break. You can't do anything useful with this tree, and that's why it has become so old." But in an inn, that same evening, when the carpenter went to sleep, the old oak tree appeared to him in his dream and said: "Why do you compare me to your cultivated trees such as white-thorn, pear, orange, and apple trees, and all the others that bear fruit, people attack and violate them. Their branches are broken, their twigs are torn. Their own gifts bring harm to them, and they cannot live out their natural span. That is what happens everywhere, and that is why I have long since tried to become completely useless. You poor mortal! Imagine if I had been useful in any way, would I have reached this size? Furthermore, you and I are both creatures, and how can one creature set himself so high as to judge another creature? You useless mortal man, what do you know about useless trees?" The carpenter woke up and meditated upon his dream, and later, when his apprentice asked him why just this one tree served to protect the earth-altar, he answered, "Keep your mouth shut! Let's hear no more about it! The tree grew here on purpose because anywhere else people would have ill-treated it. If it were not the tree of the earth-altar, it might have been chopped down" (Franz 1990:163).

IV. Conclusion:

From the above textual references we can see that stones which were regarded as divine are usually large (e.g. the Elder Brother Stone of the eccentric artist Mifu; the Rain-making Stones in the south of Hengshan County or in Dong Zhungshu's essays; the stone giving birth to the Stone Monkey) or strange in appearance (e.g. the stone that made Gaolin's mother pregnant; the Horse-liver Stone as a tribute to the Court of China; the stones regarded as the Geomancy Stone). Moreover, divine stones are usually regarded as having rain-making, evil-warding, fertilizing, and good-geomancy-bringing capability.

After careful enquiries for a number of years (in 1924 and 1925, and again in 1935) in Sichuan Province, Graham (1936:59-61; 1961:114) found that large and aged trees such as cedar, banyan, cypress, pine, and other varieties sometimes are worshipped as divinities. Allan (1979:5) maintains that trees are considered as divine because of their unusually long life and immense appearance. The research of Burkhardt (1958b:119) in Hong Kong also asserts that the trees elaborately decorated and worshipped as gods are usually trees with long life. Moreover, after field study in the southern parts of China, Eberhard finds that trees that are worshipped are generally large trees (1970:21-22). Additionally, these trees were normally venerated as geomancy trees, miracle trees, the Land God, and temple tree of the Land God etc.

In Chapter Three and onwards, the data which I collected from the field research in 1992-1994 will be applied to this study to see why and how the divine stones and trees are worshipped in present-day Taiwan.

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(note.1)

The most well-recorded and important type of divine stones in Chinese texts is "She" stones and the stone Land God. I shall discuss them in the following chapters.

(note.2)

In imperial times, when drought struck part of a province, the governor usually appealed to local deities to bring rain as it was believed that the timely production of rain was a part of the duty of the local gods. If in vain, he, acting as representative of the Emperor, who himself was the "Son of Heaven," could order them to see to their duty, treating them with as little ceremony as he would treat one of his county magistrates. Gods who failed in their duties could be tried and condemned to a public beating (cf. Eberhard 1970:257; Wolf 1974:144).

(note.3)

If someone is sick, Chinese think he is in a Yinyang imbalance. To correct this, treatment often involves tonification (i.e. stimulating the lack) or suppression (i.e. reducing the excess) and restoring a balance (Frese & Gray 1987:27; Yeh Kaofang 1987:21).

(note.4)

Since these stones were usually hewn or inscribed with characters, I excluded them from the current field research.

(note.5)

People have always been ambivalent about the Geomancy Stones, and the belief has been changed since 1929. Graham describes that formerly the streets of Yibin were very narrow, and in them were several large stones believed to be the Geomancy Stone. These stones made it more difficult for people to pass up and down, especially when carrying loads or sedan chairs. No one dared to chip them down so that they would not obstruct traffic - that would certainly cause calamities among the people of the city. In 1929 the Yibin City had a mayor who widened and paved the streets, and had stone masons chip away the stones. The act lessened people's fear of, and respect for, the Geomancy Stone.

(note.6)

There are also some tree legends in Taiwan. Among them, the legend of the divine tree of the Sun Moon Lake is the most famous. According to a story recorded in a gazetteer of Zhanghua (Chang- hua) County of Taiwan (cf. Yuan Chang-rue 1993:8), an Autumn Maple tree grew up overnight on the side of the Sun Moon Lake. The root of the tree stuck 20 m deep in the lake, and the trunk towered 30 m into the sky, where the tree leaves extended a coverage of 20 metres square. The local tribal people considered it as a divine tree.

As soon as the tree had grown big, a child was born by a woman who was made pregnant by the Autumn Maple Tree in her dream. The child was named Guzong, and in time, grew into a man of strong stature and was chosen as the chief of the Tribe. The gazetteer states that in 1726, the Qing Government sent a troop to suppress Guzong who killed and robbed the people of neighbouring areas. In order to facilitate the suppression, the leader of the troop decided that the divine Autumn Maple Tree be cut down. Guzong, the tribal chief, and his two sons were thereupon caught and executed (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:8-9).

However, according to the folk version of the story, the troop was unsuccessful in their first attempt of suppression. Soon, the leader of the troop was advised that Guzong, was actually the incarnation of the divine Autumn Maple Tree which must be uprooted to destroy his mystical power. By piercing the back of the tree all over and by applying dog blood to it, the divine tree was felled. It was at that very moment that Guzong drowned himself in the Lake (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:9).

(note.7)

By the same token, the most well-recorded and important type of divine trees in Chinese texts is "She" trees and the tree Land God. I shall discuss them in the following chapters.