tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30577595368151141702024-03-13T15:14:05.746-07:00Jerome Yuchien's Ph.D Thesis游 謙 Email: papuayu@hotmail.com
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-41090437949326498812008-02-17T01:10:00.001-08:002021-11-18T07:24:24.850-08:00THREE RELATED TYPES OF CHINESE DEITIES--STONE, TREE, AND LAND<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">INDEX
<a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/abstract.html">Abstract and </a></span></b><a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/abstract.html"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">Acknowledgements</span></b></a></span><span style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p>
</o:p><o:p></o:p><a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/chapter-two-textual-references-to.html">Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Textual References to Divine Stones and Trees</a><o:p></o:p>
<a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/chapter-four-festival-dates-of-three.html">Chapter Three: The Land God in Chinese Popular Religion
Chapter Four: Festival Dates of the Three Deities</a><o:p></o:p>
<a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/chapter-six-nominal-adoption-and-three.html">Chapter Five: The Deification of Stones and Trees
Chapter Six: Nominal Adoption and the Three Deities</a><o:p></o:p>
<a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/chapter-eight-links-among-stone-tree.html">Chapter Seven: Lottery Gambling and the Three Deities
Chapter Eight: The Links among the Stone, Tree, and Land Deities</a><o:p></o:p>
<a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/chapter-nine-conclusion.html">Chapter Nine: Conclusion</a></span></b>
<a href="http://thesis-on-stone-god.blogspot.com/2008/02/bibliography.html"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">Bibliography</span></b></a></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/religstudies/"><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">Lancaster</span></b></st1:placename><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;"> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></span></b></st1:place></a><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">THREE RELATED TYPES OF CHINESE DEITIES--STONE, TREE, AND LAND </span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Jerome YuChien</span></b>
<st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">LANCASTER</span></b></st1:city><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">, <st1:country-region st="on">U.K.</st1:country-region></span></b></st1:place>
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 150%;">JANUARY 1997
Supervised by: Prof. S. McFarlane
Examiners
Prof. Stephan Feuchtwang
Prof. David Smith<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 85%;">
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</script>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-35308912337123575652008-02-16T01:59:00.000-08:002008-02-19T07:19:41.287-08:00Abstract and Acknowledgements<p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><?xml:namespace prefix = o /><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">THREE TYPES OF CHINESE DEITIES--STONE,TREE,AND LAND <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES,<?xml:namespace prefix = st1 /><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">LANCASTER</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">UNIVERSITY</st1:placetype></st1:place> IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">BY<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">Jerome YuChien<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">LANCASTER</span></b></st1:city><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">,<st1:country-region st="on">U.K.</st1:country-region></span></b></st1:place><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">JANUARY 1997 <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">This thesis deals with certain aspects of the Chinese popular religion of Taiwan; specifically , the cult of the Land God represented by stone(Chio Tho-ti-kong) and/or tree (Chhiu Tho-ti-kong) and the enormously complex relationships between this deity and both the Stone God (Chio-thau-kong) and the Tree God (Tua-chhiu-kong). The results of the study indicate that scared trees and stones worshipped as gods can be distinguished from the Land God which is represented by trees or stones. The distinction between the Land God and stone/tree gods can also be applied to the study of legends, traits, functions, images, deification stories, the dates for annual festivals etc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">This thesis also demonstrate that common people only partly accept the authority of the standardised written accounts fostered by elites and/or local leaders, and take it as only one of their authorities. besides it, they have their own mechanism to sustain their religious culture and have their own authorities to follow. The investigation of this mechanism and/or authorities can be easily overlooked if we limit our studies to the religious cultures dominated by the elites. Furthermore, the mechanism fostered by the state and elites seemed to serve as a carrier of messages such as civilization, order, and loyalty to the state, that is, "keepers" of social values. On the contrary, the authorities preferred by common people can serve as "challengers" to those who are privileged and who set social values. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">This thesis consists of two parts: text and illustrations. The text, including notes, bibliography and character list, comprises 300 pages. All the 112 illustrations attached are colour photos I took in my field sites. The study will serve readers in the fields of Taiwanese culture, Chinese popular religion, history of religion, and anthropology. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">Acknowledgements<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%;font-family:arial;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 150%">I am grateful to many people for help in carrying this thesis to completion. First, Iwant to express my sincere gratitude to those whom I interviewed druing my fieldwork. I also want to thank my supervisor Dr. Stewart McFarlane, especially for his patience and advice. In addition, I hereby acknowledge the generous financial support of the National Youth Commission of the Executive Yuan in 1992-3, and that of the Academia Sinicaa in 1993-4. Special thanks are also due to both Dr. L. S. Davis and J. A. Laidlaw for their reading of draught chapters and for providing invaluable criticism. Next, Mr. Andrew.T. Clarke also deserves thanks for correcting many mistakes in my use of English.<br /><br />Many academics and staff in the Institute of Ethnology ( e.g. Prof. Zhuang Yingzhang, Prof. Xu Jiaming, Prof. Lin Meirong, and Prof. Pan Yinghai) of Academia Sinica, Taiwan and Department of Religious Studies ( e.g. Ms. Janice Parkes, Dr. Roderick Main, and Prof. John Clayton), Lancaster University, England have helped me in mumerous ways -- to all of whom I am thankful.<br /><br />I am indebted to Ms. Susan Lucas for her kindness when I studied in England. Finally, for both financial help and general support, I am deeply grateful to my family.</span></b></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" face="arial"></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-76880237778049288412008-02-15T02:11:00.000-08:002008-02-17T02:45:41.738-08:00Chapter One: Introduction<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Field Methodology: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">This study is based primarily on field research conducted in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In the summer of 1991, I returned to <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> from <st1:country-region st="on">England</st1:country-region> to visit my parents, and did the preliminary fieldwork in northern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> where my family lived. Even though the work lasted only two months, I took many pictures, wrote a field report and took all of these materials to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> to show my supervisor. He found it was worthy of study and advised me to devote a year's library work to this subject to prepare the intensive fieldwork. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The intensive fieldwork was carried out between 1992 and <st1:chmetcnv unitname="in" sourcevalue="1994" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1994 in</st1:chmetcnv> the widest range of villages and towns on the island -- chosen at random -- that I was able to visit, given the time and resources at my disposal. Usually, when I first arrived at a site, I would talk informally with people to get them to "open up" and to encourage them to express themselves in their own terms, and at their own pace. If possible, I would start a semi- structured interview in which I used a written list of questions and topics that I had arranged in a particular order. I used neither structured questionnaires nor tape-recorders in order not to exercise excessive control over people or even get them nervous. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I conducted interviews with the shrine staffs and with many of the believers in the neighbourhoods; and got to know them more as I established friendly relations with them. Since I did not assume that I had an automatic right to carry out the investigations, the research was a reciprocal one. Every time I went to a shrine, I prepared to offer something (e.g. the photos I took and the results of my research) to thank the people I interviewed. (note.1)Because I am a native Taiwanese, I did not find it difficult to explain my presence or the nature of my investigations to the people concerned. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In the first half of 1996 I visited the field sites again to do supplementary fieldwork, that is, to ask the questions that I missed in intensive fieldwork, and to make sure of those things I was uncertain of when writing the thesis draught. (note.2) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The first scholar who did research of the worship of stone and tree in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and its relation with the "She" Cult is Ling Shun-sheng. (note.3)He started his study on Chinese classics and Occidental works of this subject in 1955. In total, he produced five monographs (1958; <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1959" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1959a</st1:chmetcnv>; 1959b; 1964; 1967) on this subject and received many compliments from scholars concerned with the subject (cf. Mabuchi 1970:349; Pearson 1970:317).(note.4) In November 1963, Ling Shun-sheng received a letter from his daughter Ling Manli from Oregon, USA, in which were enclosed two colour photos of a dolmen. He was surprised and sent her a letter immediately, inquiring about the origin of these two pictures. In her reply, she said: "The two pictures were given to me by a missionary by the name of Rev. Robert P. McKinnen. He said the two pictures were among the photos of local scenes taken by a photo studio at Taizhong (Tai-chung) <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Taiwan</st1:placename></st1:place> for one of his friends, but he does not know himself the exact location of the dolmen." Later, the dolmen in these two pictures was found located in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taizhong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> through some field search by Ling Shun- sheng and his colleagues (Ling Shun-sheng 1967:136). He claimed that over 80 dolmens were discovered by him and, in his estimation, there should be approximately several thousand dolmens existing on this 30,000 sq-kilometre island of Taiwan (Ling Shun-sheng 1967:134). Since he was well versed in Chinese classics, his study on them is trustworthy and thus I will apply them in my investigation in the following chapters. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Unfortunately, his interpretation of the divine stones and trees has left much to be desired. He found a number of divine stones and trees in both east and west <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. He claimed that these natural objects worshipped by aboriginal tribes (both Plain and Mountain Aboriginals) were dolmen and menhir-like and signified the genital organ of both sexes. He then maintained that these traits revealed that they were not only merely similar but also virtually identical with Chinese "She" Cult (esp. Ling Shun-sheng 1958:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="56" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">56f</st1:chmetcnv>; <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1959" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1959a</st1:chmetcnv>:178; 1964:41). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There are at least two objections which can be raised against Ling Shun-sheng's interpretation of these natural objects. First of all, the worship of genital, menhir, and dolmen-like stones is a universal phenomenon (Hartland 1917b; Graesser 1972; Edsman 1987; Mohen 1989), many peoples in the world, including Taiwan Aboriginals and Han-Chinese, practice such worship, the evidence he presents does not prove that they are virtually the same as the Chinese "She" Cult.(note.5) Second and most vitally, as I will explain in the following sections, neither Plain nor Mountain Aboriginals had any contact with China until the coming of Chinese in the seventeenth century. This contact remained very limited (certainly not sufficient to account for major cultural phenomena); and even until the beginning of the twentieth century, within the overall frame of East Asia culture history, Taiwan Aboriginals had relatively little contact with the Han-Chinese population. In fact, <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> Aboriginals were outside the cultural and religious orbit of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Herz 1986:19; Copper 1990:17). Therefore, a different interpretation from that of Ling Shun-sheng is needed.(note.6) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Affected by these considerations, I decided to do a fresh round of field research and find the sites of divine stones and trees by myself. Since I was born in <st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> (located in the northeast <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>) and is currently a consultant of religious policy of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Government</st1:placename></st1:place>, I am sure that I have visited all the stone and tree deities in this county. Moreover, the study of Lin Mei-rong (1987:53-81) on the worship of the Land God of her hometown (Chhau-tun Town of Nantou County, central Taiwan) includes a preliminary report on all divine stones and trees of the town. Therefore, I am sure that I have included all divine trees and stones of these two areas in this thesis. Additionally, both the gazetteer of <st1:placename st="on">Lam-tau</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> written by Liu Zhiwan (1961) and an article on the tree worship of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> written by Yuan Chang-rue (1993) were helpful for my field work. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I limited myself and did field research only on the stones which were not hewn or inscribed with any characters such as Shi Gandang or stone lions and others, although they were also regarded as divine. I believe that the divine stones and trees I researched belong to a single category. Moreover, I exclude the stones and trees which are not worshipped by the public. (note.7)In total, I researched 61 stone and 39 tree shrines in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (see also Appendix). I would not affirm that I have visited all the divine stones and trees of the single category, but I am certain that those I have researched are typical for the purpose of my study. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Objectives: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In preparing the thesis, I have had two objectives. Most obviously, the thesis is a description of a feature of Chinese religion, that is, the worship of three natural objects -- land, stone, and tree. Although scholarly works dealing with community religious organisations, calendrical festivals, and family rites have become a great concern over the past thirty years, the discussion of the worship of natural objects has been almost neglected in the anthropological and sociological literature (cf. Yang 1961:353; Feng 1970:21; Allan 1979:5). However, I believe that the study of the three deities is also important in a number of ways that are easily missed if we limit our consideration to colourful festivals and household rites which are easier to field research (cf. Jordan & Overmyer 1986:8; Lin Mei-rong 1991.). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The second objective in studying these three deities arises from the fact that believers in them are relatively low on the social scale and have little political power. For this reason their beliefs are often misunderstood. Once, I had lunch with a friend in the Academia Sinica. He asked what subject I was studying for my Ph.D. thesis. I answered: "The worship of stones and trees." He immediately replied: "People even worship stones and trees! Do they worship chamber pots?" Moreover, it is often heard in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> within intellectual circles that many religions in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> are superstitious: "The veneration of cultural heroes seems reasonable because of their virtues. However, the worship of stones and trees is extremely superstitious since they cannot even speak!" <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The religious beliefs of common people does not have official spokespersons or theologians to explain and defend their beliefs and practices. One of my reasons for writing this thesis is to demonstrate the seriousness of these religious beliefs and practices and to correct the misunderstanding of the religious beliefs that is common, even in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> itself. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In order to achieve these two objectives, in the rest of this chapter, I give a geographical and historical introduction and a general view of Chinese popular religion of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the island where I did my fieldwork. In Chapter Two, I review the textual data relating to Chinese worship of natural objects, especially divine stones and trees. Chapter Three portrays the images, functions, and traits of the Land God in order to offer a setting for the following chapters. In Chapter Four, by using the data collected from my fieldwork, I examine how the divine stones and trees are identified with the dates for annual birthday festivals and why some of them do not have any birthdays attached. Chapter Five discusses the religious custom of nominal adoption, the most traditional and distinctive role that the deities play in popular religion. In Chapter Six, I illustrate that some natural objects are themselves regarded as deities or as possessed by certain supernatural beings while others are not. Chapter Seven analyzes why in some places the divine stones and trees get involved in the "Everybody Happy Lottery" while in some places they do not. It is also argued that the prevalence of the Lottery, together with the transformation of roles of these deities, can be read, to a certain degree, as a resistance against or even a subversion of the contemporary social order in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In Chapter Eight, by applying the theories of paleographic and historical studies, I demonstrate that aspects of modern stone and tree worship are closely connected with the "She" Cult but are not inevitably surviving examples of it. In the final chapter, I conclude that sacred trees and stones worshipped as the Stone and Tree Gods can be distinguished from the Land God that is represented by a tree or stone. The distinction between the Land God and the Stone and Tree Gods can also be applied to the study of legends, traits, functions, images, deification stories, the dates for birthday festivals etc. Moreover, I reiterate that common people have their own mechanism to sustain their religious culture and have their own authorities to follow. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Geography and Ethnicity: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taiwan</span></b></st1:place></st1:country-region><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> is an offshore island in the western Pacific and 100 miles southeast of the Chinese mainland. The island, which is approximately 245 miles long and 85 miles across at its widest point, has one of the highest population densities in the world - - about 1285 persons per square mile in a 14,000 square mile area. Over half the island is mountainous with few inhabitants; the other half, to the west, is fertile with more than 3,000 people per square mile (cf. Wu Lien-chin 1987:111; Copper 1990:1). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Some geologists say <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> was originally part of the <st1:place st="on">Asia</st1:place> mainland. Others argue that its volcanic soil and the fact that it is part of the long chain of islands extending from the Alaskan Aleutans indicate that the island's origins are similar to those of <st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, the <st1:country-region st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region>, and other islands off the eastern <st1:place st="on">Asia</st1:place> coast. This evidence suggests either a more distant time connection - or none at all - to the <st1:place st="on">Asia</st1:place> mainland. Recent geological studies reinforce the latter view, suggesting that <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> rose from the sea rather recently - a million years ago (Copper 1990:2). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taiwan</span></b></st1:place></st1:country-region><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> has abundant rainfall year-round; the mean annual precipitation is 102 inches. Generally the east coast receives more rain than the west, and the mountains more than the lowlands. One odd feature about <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s rain patterns is that the dry season at one end of the island coincides with the rainy season at the other. In the north the heaviest rainfall is between October and March; in the south the rainy season occurs between April and September (Copper 1990:4). The plentiful rain supplies water for irrigation of agriculture in rainy seasons and for streams lakes and reservoirs when needed in dry times. Besides, much of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s soil is either volcanic or partly volcanic and thus is fairly fertile despite centuries of farming. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Although the Daoyi (Island Savages) in the Shangshu (the Book of History), the Dongdi of the Han Dynasty, the Yizhou of the Three Kingdoms, and the Liuqiu of the Sui Dynasty, are generally believed by historians to refer to Taiwan, it is now known that there were no Han Chinese people settled on the island (Chen Chi-lu 1972:119). But knowledge of the island probably existed already a long time before at such early times. Fishermen or merchants, driven from the <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:place> coastal waters by storms, told tales of a beautiful island far off in the ocean (Proksch 1984:13). Until the collapse of the Ming Dynasty in 1662, rulers of mainland <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> had by and large ignored <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The island was seen by Chinese as part of the Ryukyu chain, and, in the dynastic records of the sixth century Sui dynasty, was referred to as "Tai Liuqiu" or "Great Ryukyu" (although, later it was also known as "lesser Ryukyu") (Long 1991:4). In 605 one official was dispatched by the Emperor Yangdi of Sui Dynasty to investigate reports that in clear weather a smoky haze could be seen across the <st1:place st="on">Taiwan strait</st1:place> (Long 1991:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="4" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">4f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Copper, a historian of Taiwan, states that "in 1517 Portuguese vessels en route to Japan sighted Taiwan and named it "Ilha Formosa" (1990:18). But Proksch, another historian, maintains that the Portuguese sailors named the island "Ilha <st1:country-region st="on">Formosa</st1:country-region>" in 1590 and the name "<st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Formosa</st1:country-region></st1:place>" was since introduced to the Western world (1984:13). However, the exact date is not vital, because the Portuguese did not lay claim to the island, nor did they try to colonise it. Besides, the name "Ilha Formosa" only means "beautiful island" in Portuguese language and the sailors could have dubbed many islands "Ilha Formosa", when they saw beautiful islands on their voyages. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ironically, even though the island was only 100 miles away from the Chinese world, it was not until the Ming Dynasty (1368- 1644) that its exact location was known by them and the name Taiwan used by Han Chinese (Baity 1975:16; Copper 1990:18). Like Copper (1990:1), many historians do not know the origin of the name "<st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>" which literally means "terraced bay". However, benefiting from his long-term field study in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Schipper (1977:771) considered that: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The name <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> is derived from Tayuan, an early name of a little island not far from the coast of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Formosa</st1:place></st1:country-region> on which the Dutch built their first and most important stronghold. Named An-p'ing after the victory of Koxinga in 1662, the former island is now a suburb of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tainan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>, as the water strip separating the two has long since silted up. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taiwan is densely populated by approximately 22 million people and is occupied by two main ethnic groups, namely, about 2 percent of the indigenous group and 98 percent of Han-Chinese group (cf. Lamley 1977; Gates 1981; Herz 1986; Chiu 1987; Chuang Ying-chang 1988; Pan Ing-hai 1989; Copper 1990; Long 1991). According to some records, before the Dutch arrived in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> in 1624, a few Han-Chinese had already lived in various aborigine villages in the area around present-day <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Tainan</st1:place></st1:city> and traded in rice and salt. Some of them married indigenous women but were not stable residents (i.e. none of them were farmers) of the aboriginal community (Chen Chi-lu 1972:121; Allan 1979:2; Chuang Ying-chang 1987:181). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Han-Chinese are not themselves homogeneous in any sense. In the past few millennia, the Han-Chinese have assimilated different heterogeneous elements to become the greater Han- Chinese people. Further developing after the Han Dynasty, the Han-Chinese have extended their sphere to cover almost the whole area of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Chen Chi-lu 1972:119). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In Taiwan today, the Han-Chinese can be divided into three groups (Mandarin speaking Chinese, Hollo speaking Chinese, and Hakka speaking Chinese) according to the difference of language each group speaks (cf. Lamley 1981:283).(note.8) The Mandarin speaking Chinese are those who migrated into Taiwan after World War II and their Taiwan-born offspring. This group comprises 13% of the population in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Because most of them are people in public service and soldiers who were forced to leave <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> by Chinese Communists and who took refuge on the island in 1949, many still identify themselves as Chinese and not Taiwanese. (note.9) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hakka (literally, "Guests") speaking people include 13% of the whole of the population in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Some scholars point out that the Hakka people originated in the area called "Zhongyuan" (the area south of the Yellow River, north of the Yangtze River, west of the <st1:placename st="on">Huai</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">River</st1:placetype> and east of the <st1:place st="on">Han River</st1:place>) and migrated in a southerly direction (Copper 1990; Long 1991:14). A total of five major southward migrations were interspersed with numerous smaller moves. The fifth-century invasion of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> by northern tribes instigated the first major migration. During the reigns of Kangxi (1662-1722), Qianlong (1736-1795) and Jiaqing (1796-1820) in the Qing Dynasty the fourth major Hakka movement, from <st1:state st="on">Guangdong</st1:state> to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, occurred. One reason for this last migratory move was population pressure in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Guangdong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>. A second reason was the Manchu invasion of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The Hakka People resisted the Manchu Government but were defeated. As a result, only with the reign of the second Qing Emperor Kangxi were they allowed to hold jobs in the civil service. They could not own land. These tough conditions left many Hakka people with no choice but to migrate to the Pescadores, then on to southern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Long 1991:14). The reasons for migration to <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> changed after the Qing Government brought <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> under Chinese rule, when many migrated to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> because of better economic opportunities (cf. Chuang Ying-chang 1988:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="169" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">169f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The culture and customs of the Hakka People, who are probably the earliest Han-Chinese to emigrate to <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region></st1:place> (Long 1991:14), were unique. Because the Hakka were long persecuted and isolated in <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>, they developed a strong self-identity, a quality they have retained in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Although they are all classified as Han-Chinese, the social customs and mores of the Hakka still differ from those of either Hollo speaking people or the Mandarin speaking Chinese. In Chapter Seven, I attribute one of the reasons that most of the Hakka people do not get involved in the "Everybody Happy Lottery", the most prevalent illicit gambling, to their cultural difference. However, they consider themselves Taiwanese because they, like their forebears, were born in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (cf. Copper 1990:37). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The principal ethnic group in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> is Hollo speaking Chinese who include approximately 72% of the population.(note.10) During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), they came from <st1:placename st="on">Fujian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype>, directly across the Taiwan Strait, and migrated to <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region></st1:place>. The fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644 brought a major wave of migration from <st1:placename st="on">Fujian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype> to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, pushing some of the Hakkas inland while inhabiting most of the western plain (Copper 1990:8). Nowadays, though still officially less powerful than the Mandarin speaking Chinese, Hollo speaking Chinese dominate many sectors of the business community. They also control the farming sectors of the economy, as well as the local politics in most of the country (Copper 1990:9). Consequently, they also call themselves Taiwanese. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, in the thesis the term "Taiwanese" is used to designate persons of Han Chinese ethnicity whose forebears settled the land prior to the end of World War II and who identified themselves as "Taiwanese". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Historical Development of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Because Mandarin has been the only official language in Taiwan since Mandarin speaking Chinese took refuge on the island after World War II, most people have been raised and educated speaking more than one language, Taiwan's population may be said to be bilingual or trilingual. Owing to ethnic differences and historical changes, the religions of Taiwan can best be described in terms of their historical development, which can be divided into seven major periods: (1) the pre Dutch period, before 1622, (2) the period of Dutch and Spanish rule, 1622-1661, (3) the period of Koxinga, (4) Manchu rule, 1661-1895, (5) the period of Japanese rule, 1895-1945, (6) the post-war period (cf. Chiu 1987:252). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Although the island is only 100 miles away from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Han- Chinese were not original inhabitants. Prior to the seventeenth century, Taiwan was sparsely occupied by a few tribes of aborigines who are considered to be of Indonesian or Malayan origin and who migrated from Indochina and the Philippines in prehistoric times, even though we still cannot be sure whether they were the first settlers or not (cf. Diamond 1969:2; Proksch 1984:13; Chuang Ying-chang 1987:183; Wu Lien-chin 1987:111; Copper 1990:7-12). It has been hypothesised that during Neolithic times (c. 3000-2000 BCE.), Oceanic Negroids brought in horticulture from Southeast Asia, followed by Mongoloids with millet from northern China, and Indochinese with Bronze age culture. About 300 BCE a Megalithic and Iron Age culture was introduced by peoples from the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region> to this nearby island (Chiu 1987:252). However, pottery excavated in northern Taiwan shows a marked resemblance to that of mainland China, leading others to maintain that the first settlers came from China as early as one thousand years before the Christian era (Proksch 1984:13).(note.11) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The descendants of these ethnic groups are now restricted mainly to the infertile regions and are known collectively as the indigenous peoples. They are traditionally divided into two groups, the Mountainous Tribes and the Plain Tribes. The Mountainous Tribes are Taiyal, Saisiat, Banun, Tsou, Rukai, Paiwan, Puyuma, Ami, and Yami. The Plain Tribes are Siraya, Bazay, Gavalan, and Kitagalan etc. Certain distinguished Western ethnologists have argued that some indigenous tribes were "Lonkius", the descendants of a people who had fled the cold north and settled in the Kurile archipelago to the north of <st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, through <st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region> and the Ryukyu chain, and south as far as <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Formosa</st1:place></st1:country-region> (cf. Long 1991:3). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">For some Chinese ethnologists, however, the "Lonkius" are a mainland Chinese people. They are said to have reached Taiwan as early as 1700 BCE, as a shortage of agricultural land under the Shang Dynasty led primitive tribesmen eastward from present-day Guizhou Province, in south-western central China, and finally sent them across the straits in the search of new land to farm. In support of this theory, historians have pointed to a Taiyal tribal myth that the tribe is the result of a union between a princess and a dog. In southern <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>, the Miao people, an aboriginal group in <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Guizhou</st1:place></st1:state> were said also to worship the image of a dog as the founder of their tribe (Long 1991:3). Even if this tenuous link is taken as evidence for a historical connection, I must say, this does not alter the view that Taiwan's early historical ties to China were not close: The Miao people are not Chinese, nor did they speak a Chinese language at the time of a possible migration to Taiwan. However, a possible Miao connection does link <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> more closely geographically (Copper 1990:17). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The other tribes of early inhabitants are of less controversial ancestry. Their languages and customs have much in common with those of early Malay and Filipino peoples, and they are of Malayo-Polynesian ethnic stock and reached <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> by way of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It seems that for some centuries, the Malays and the Lonkius coexisted at different extremities of the island in mutual ignorance of the other's presence (Long 1991:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="3" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">3f</st1:chmetcnv>). Then in the seventh century after Christ, the Malays moved northwards, gradually extending their settlements over much of the island, and forcing the Taiyals into the foothills of the northern end of the central highlands. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In spite of this, little is known about the indigenous tribes prior to a few centuries ago because they did not keep written records. Nevertheless, it has been established that the aboriginal population was evenly distributed throughout the island and that they made their livelihood by fishing, hunting, and some shifting agriculture. Land was owned in common; the political and social systems were tribal (Copper 1990:17). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The indigenous tribes have a very rich collection of myths, legends, and genealogies. Myths of creation, the origin of man, celestial phenomena, gods and spirits, culture heroes, and sacred animals are popular among all the tribes. Many myths have etiological motifs identifying the sacred origins of cultural events and ritual actions (Chiu 1987:252). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Besides these myths, fairly extensive legends and genealogies of tribal history and geography have been preserved. Rites of passage are common to all tribes and are normally observed by all members of the society. Communal rites of opening up the land, sowing and planting, weeding and purification, picking the first crop, harvest, and thanksgiving are observed by all the tribes. Rites of animal hunting and head-hunting are conducted on special occasions. During the rituals, myths are recited and mythic events are reenacted to strengthen the people's sense of identity and harmony with their environment (Baity 1975:27; Chiu 1987:252). Some archaeological results prove that they worshipped stones which symbolised genitalia. All in all these peoples were very much outside the cultural and religious orbit of central <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Herz 1986:19). They were able to maintain their own traditional culture and religion intact until the arrival of the Dutch, Spaniards, and Chinese in the seventeenth century. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Dutch Colony: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In 1622, led by Kornelis Peyersoon, the Dutch came to the Pescadores (small islands situated between <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>) but were driven away in 1624. However, the Chinese Ming Government allowed them to stay in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Thus the Dutch built <st1:placetype st="on">Fort</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Orange</st1:placename>, later called <st1:placetype st="on">Fort</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Zeelandia</st1:placename>, at Tayouan (now Anping District) and <st1:placetype st="on">Fort</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Providentia</st1:placename> at Saccam (now <st1:city st="on">Tainan</st1:city>) on the southwestern coast of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and became the temporary rulers of the island (Chen Chi-lu 1972:120). The mercantilistic Dutch traders ruled by the Dutch East India Company encouraged Chinese immigration into <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> to work as labourers and to produce sugar for export and rice for local consumption (Wu Lien-chin 1987:111). As it was recorded in the <st1:city st="on">Batavia</st1:city> Diary (April 2, 1631), the Dutch East India Company even sent her own ships to transport Chinese labourers to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Chen Chi-lu 1972:121). Due to this type of encouragement, the Chinese population in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> increased constantly. They had already exceeded several tens of thousands by the middle of the seventeenth century (Chen Chi-lu 1972:122).(note.12) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">As the Chinese population increased, they began to form their own communities and practise the traditional Chinese religions of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism as well as the Chinese popular religion (Chiu 1987:253). In the meantime, the Plain Tribes, who lived on the western coastal plains, were conciliatory to the Dutch and to their Christian missions. Many of them accepted Christianity (i.e. the Dutch Reformed Church), and others were influenced by Chinese religions. The chief Plain Tribes nearby were the Siraya (Sydeyan), although it seems that as many as five distinct linguistic groups were ministered to as a few fragments of the devotional works prepared by the Dutch missionaries in the languages still remain today (Herz 1986:19). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">On April 31, 1661, a Ming Dynasty loyalist resisting the Qing Dynasty, Admiral Zheng Chenggong - known as Koxinga in Western languages - led the main body of his forces from Jinmen (Quemoy) to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. On Feb. 1, 1662, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Fort</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Zeelandia</st1:placename></st1:place> was surrendered to him. This brought the Dutch colony and its missionary work to an end (Herz 1986:27). Thus, as no native ministers had been trained, the Siraya Christian Church was left without pastoral oversight for more than two centuries. Indeed, it all but ceased to exist, though a romanised catechism in the Siraya language remains (Herz 1986:27). Eventually, most Plain peoples came to adopt Chinese habits of speech, dress, religion, and social custom following Koxinga's conquest of the island (Herz 1986:20). (note.13) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The most distinctive survival of Sirayan religious practice is the worship known generically as the Worship of A-lip. This is a cult of sacred jars, today usually of Chinese manufacture, among the Siraya, a cult related to certain others in Borneo and the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Herz 1986:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="19" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">19f</st1:chmetcnv>). Among the highly sinicised descendants of the Siraya, the jar cult is still followed by non- Christians today. An account tells us that in preparation for the imposing and the lifting of the "Xiang" (i.e. a spirit), a human head was to be taken to please the gods. Under pressure from the Qing Government to cease head-hunting, the Siraya substituted the skulls of wild boar and deer. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, some scholars argue that the jars are of genital symbolism. Their argument is based on the unique altar of the A- lip temple at Beitouyany. No skulls are hung at this altar; rather the vases are joined on the raised altar by cylindrically shaped stones which they readily interpret as phallic in contrast to the pregnant jars (Shepherd 1984:39). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">To the east and south, respectively, of the Siraya are the Paiwan and <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Rukai</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype></st1:place> Aborigines. Among these groups jars have a great deal of religious significance (Shepherd 1984:38). The jars played a similarly prominent role among the traditional Siraya which our sources fail to describe (Shepherd 1984:39). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Koxinga Dynasty: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Koxinga, son of a Japanese mother and a Chinese pirate father (Proksch 1984:14), made a last-ditch stand in south <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> against the invading Manchu armies. He retreated to the Pescadores and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> where he laid siege to the Dutch forts. He expelled the Dutch and changed the name of the island to <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> and made <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Tainan</st1:place></st1:city> the capital. Soon massive Chinese migrations to <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> from the provinces of <st1:state st="on">Fujian</st1:state> and <st1:state st="on">Guangdong</st1:state> began, although the Chinese emigration to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> had started before that time. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Koxinga laid the foundations for the establishment of Chinese society in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. After his arrival in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Chinese population increased very rapidly. His soldier-farmer policy along with the adequate system designed by the Dutch, on which all subsequent Chinese administration was based, established the principal foundations of Chinese success in opening up new territory, and the immigrants gradually spread out over the flat area which was most suitable for intensive farming. As their towns and cities grew in number, they also built many shrines, temples, and monasteries to house the gods they brought with them from mainland <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Often the temples became the centres of Chinese communities (cf. Chuang Ying-chang 1987:182). Besides, the pioneering farmers built shrines of the Land God to protect their agriculture and against demons and aborigines. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">But the Koxinga family controlled <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> for only 22 years (1661-1683). Just one short year after Koxinga drove the Dutch from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> he fell ill and died. The Qing Government made repeated attempts to crush the rebels, and the Dynasty which he had established ended when his grandson surrendered the island to the Qing Government in 1683. From that time on <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> obtained dominion over <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Proksch 1984:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="14" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">14f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Qing Dynasty: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">As part of <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> began to attract not only peasants and fishermen, but all classes of Chinese including scholars who came seeking a less restrictive intellectual atmosphere (Proksch 1984:15). Little by little, they displaced indigenous tribes from the lowlands, and pushed them further into the mountains. Steady emigration from China raised the population of Taiwan from a few thousand in 1600 to more than two million by 1895 (Wu Lien-chin 1987:112) and Chinese popular religion, which will be our main concern in the following chapters, for the first time became the dominant religion in the island. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taiwan was still a marginal part of China, so the development of the island was not a high priority for the government. The new government's control of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> produced few improvements (Copper 1990:75). For example, though in 1884 Peking reorganised its political administration in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>, appointing Liu Mingchuan, a very capable official, as governor, and two years later made <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> a province, as late as 1871, when some Japanese castaways were killed by tribesmen in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>'s government felt justified in disclaiming authority over all but <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s western seaboard (Long 1991:14). After <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>'s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> ceded <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> and the Pescadores to <st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region> in perpetuity as a prize under the 1895 Treaty of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Shimonoseki</st1:place></st1:city>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Japanese Colony: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taiwan's modern economic development began in the early part of this century, soon after it became a Japanese colony. The Japanese colonial government, intending to make <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> a stepping stone in its advance toward Southeast Asia, promoted Japanese education and industries in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Besides this, the Japanese introduced Shinto religion and Japanese Buddhism into <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and the indigenous tribes and Taiwanese natives were forced to take part in Shinto worship. 63 grand shrines and 116 local shrines were built by the government all over the island (cf. Chiu 1987:254). Meanwhile, the leaders of traditional Chinese religions suffered oppression, and many temples were closed by the government. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Japanese control over the island came to an abrupt end at the conclusion of the Second World War. The Japanese colonial government surrendered <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>, and with American support <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> again took possession in 1945. Thus Shinto Religion also ended on the island. However, the influences of Japanese Buddhism are still visible in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Nationalist Government and its Religious Attitudes: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In 1949, when the Chinese Communists defeated the Nationalist armies on the mainland and assumed control of <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>, the Nationalist Government soon established its capital in <st1:city st="on">Taipei</st1:city> and a new wave of nearly two million immigrants arrived in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> with the Government. Because they hailed from various parts of China, they were generally known as mainlanders, or "Waishengren" ("outside province people").(note.14) Although being immigrants and a minority, they hold the majority of positions in the top ranks of the national government, in the education and academic systems, and in the military (Copper 1990:9). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In the meantime, because of the Chinese Communist Government's hostility to religion, many religious leaders were among those who took refuge in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. These included Kong Decheng, a descendant of Confucius; Ven. Yinshun, an eminent Buddhist abbot; the Thirty-seventh Heavenly Master of Taoism; Lama Kangyurwa Hutukhtu, the nineteenth reincarnation of the Living Buddha of Kangyur monastery; and Archbishop Joseph Kuo and Cardinal Tian of the Roman Catholic Church. Altogether about twenty thousand Muslims and innumerable Buddhists, Catholics, Protestants, Taoists, and Confucians came to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, turning this island into a rich showcase of world religions (Chiu 1987:254). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A statistical report of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Grichting 1971; qtd. in Wu Lien-chin 1987:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="105" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">105f</st1:chmetcnv>) shows that between 40.8 and 46.2 % of the total population identifies itself as Buddhist. Between 35.9 and 41.3 % identifies itself as belonging to Chinese popular religion. Between 8.3 and 11.5 % claims no religious affiliation. 2.5 and 4.1 % identifies itself as Protestant, and 1.9 and 3.3 % as Catholic. Around 1 % of the total population identifies itself as Taoist,(note.15) and around 1 % as Confucian. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The religious attitudes of the Nationalist Government can be seen in textbooks used during the nine-year national compulsory education. These textbooks are standardised for the whole country by the Ministry of Education and must be used by all schools in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, even private ones, such as Catholic and Buddhist schools. The contents of the textbooks obviously represent the official viewpoint and also play the most powerful role in the education system. The nine-year textbooks have been properly analyzed in an article by Jeffrey Meyer (1987:45-50). In the following I only summarise this paper to show what the religious attitudes have been taught in/by them. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">To the viewpoint of the textbooks, the "true" religions are those that support the social order, public opinion, morality and law, and there are therefore viewed as valuable (Meyer 1987:46). "The teachings of religion all stress avoiding evil and doing good, cherishing universal love. Pious believers generally speaking rarely offend against social order" says one of the textbooks (Meyer 1987:47). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In the textbooks, the Confucian tradition, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity are presented as positive religious traditions. The Taoist and Buddhist contributions to Neo-Confucianism are acknowledged, as is the latter's interest in the method of cultivating the inner mind of the individual. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The textbooks suggest that some religions do preserve important values, especially in upholding morality and public order (Meyer 1987:50). However, many religious practices such as Taoism alchemy and elaborate Baibai (i.e. traditional Chinese popular religious festival) are wasteful and superstitious, and ought to be discarded. Yet the teachings of true religions all stress avoiding evil, doing good, and cherishing universal love. One who follows the principle of these teachings will thus find they are good for one's personal interior life. On the contrary, with its institutional structure and vast canon, the religious Taoism would seem to qualify as a true religion, but because of some of its practices and since it does not have a clear-cut moral code, the textbooks consider it "superstitious" (Meyer 1987:47-8). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There is obviously no sense of the human being as homo religiosus in the textbooks. There is no sense of the transcendent element in the various expressions of religion presented, so it can be said that the understanding of religion conveyed by the textbooks is certainly rationalised and secularised. The textbooks do not think this infringes on the religious rights of Buddhists, Christians, etc., nor that it conflicts with the principle of separation of religion and state (Meyer 1987:47). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In brief, the overall impression of religion which the textbooks give would be something like this: religion is a part of the history of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> and other great world cultures. The real religion is clearly one of the great traditions institutionalised, possessing a corpus of sacred writings and a clear moral code. Thus it is the foundation for all moral training in the school system, and on occasion they allude to a basic unity of these great religions, although this point is not made definitely clear (Meyer 1987:46). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">As a result, most of the educated and even some researchers on religions have considered the popular religious traditions (or even religious practice in general) as a "social problem" and "superstition" in need of "improvement" or even "abandonment", echoing official concerns about the rationalization and institutionalization of religious practice (cf. Cohen 1987:293; Jordan 1994:137). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Popular Religion in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">As far as Chinese popular religion in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> is concerned, most believers often have little notion of what religion they practise. They merely say that they are "worshipping (baibai)" or "worshipping the deities (baishen)". If asked the name of their religion, people sometimes give an easy (and high-status) answer and identify the religion as "Buddhism" or "Taoism", even though the temple where they worship may not have any Buddhist statue in it and they may not know any Taoist deities (cf. Harrell 1977:56; Proksch 1984:19). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Actually, one of the characteristics of Chinese popular religion is its de-emphasis of the religious boundaries between various faiths, that is "syncretism". Popular deities come from a wide variety of sources. Some deities are found in Taoism or Buddhism, some are historical personalities, while still others are even the heroes of classical pseudo-historical fiction (Tsai Wen-hui 1979:26; Cohen 1987:289). Thus, the religion comprises elements from ancestor worship and the cult of the dead, from nature worship, local cults, popular Taoism, popular Buddhism, and Confucianism. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There is no single sacred text or set of documents that contains all the basic beliefs, doctrines, and values. These basic ideas must be sought instead in many different places and forms: in sacred books, votive art, rites, temple murals, family worship, myths, exemplar tales, popular theatre, puppet shows, fiction (Feuchtwang 1974b:124; Cohen 1987:289), comic books, and television series in Taiwan today (cf. Sangren 1993:8).(note.16) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">When scholars describe the religion in English, it is named "popular religion" (e.g. Smith (1899) 1969; DeGlopper 1974; Feuchtwang 1977; Cohen 1987:289), "peasant religion" (e.g. Granet (1922) 1975), "diffused religion" (e.g. Yang 1961), "folk religion" (e.g. Berkowits et al. 1969; Grichting 1971; Jordan 1972; Harrell 1977), "Chinese religion" (e.g. Freedman 1974), "local religion" (e.g. Sangren 1988) or even "local cults" (e.g. Katz 1992). In brief, there is no consensus for the naming of the religion among scholars (cf. Wu Lien-chin 1987:104). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In fact, since Robert Redfield (1956; qtd. in Sangren 1984:1) introduced the terms "great tradition and little tradition", debate over their formulation and utility has constituted an important arena for competing conceptualizations of society and culture, especially in South and Southeast Asia (Bell 1989). Today, many scholars would probably agree that dichotomies such as great tradition/little tradition(s), urban/rural, and elite/folk greatly oversimplify complex historical spatial patterns of cultural interaction (<st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Bell</st1:place></st1:city> 1989). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In order to avoid these dichotomies, Katz (1992) uses the term "local cults" to represent the religion he researches, which excludes organised religions like Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity and Islam. This also excludes systematicised religions such as sectarianism and Confucianism. Similarly, Sangren (1988) uses the term "local religion" to mean the institutions of local territorial-cult ritual. In short, the terminological choices directly reflect the various viewpoints on this religion (cf. Bell 1989:41). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, I try not to use the term "local cults" or "local religion" because even though the specifics of ritual and particular spirits chosen as objects of worship or propitiation may vary widely from locality to locality within the Chinese world, people share, at least, some general religious ideas. For example, A.P. Wolf's description of the tripartite division of the supernatural into gods, ghosts, and ancestors seems nearly universally applicable (cf. Sangren 1984:6). Generally speaking, people believe that three types of beings inhabit the supernatural world. Deities are those in a supernatural bureaucracy headed by the Jade Emperor. Ancestors are the spirits of each household's own agnatic forbears and their wives. Ghosts are those who died by violence or without descendants and without virtuous deeds to their credit (Wolf 1974). Human beings burn incense and present offerings and spirit money: to beseech deities for help and protection, sustain their ancestors in the next existence, and propitiate potentially malicious ghosts (Harrell 1977:56). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In this thesis, I shall use the term "popular religion" to indicate the religion on which I did my field research.(note.17) It is a religion in which both local leaders and common people participate, no matter whether they believe the deities or not. Local leaders (difang touren) are traditional upper middle class such as politicians, entrepreneurs, and others. They usually act as temple building initiators, organisers, or founders. In this thesis, they play important roles in soliciting to sponsor deities' festivals, in narrating temple history, and in promulgating the Almanac etc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Local leaders are usually well educated by Chinese ruling ideologies associated with Confucianism. Therefore, they are more rationalised and secularised, if not agnostical and sceptical (Creel 1935; Watson 1985; Meyer 1987:49).(note.18) However, common people need local leaders to sponsor and manage temple affairs such as birthday festival, temple construction, or pilgrimage. These leaders are zealous to spend money and time on these affairs as a way of gaining status. Therefore, they serve as channels to let the ruling ideologies reach downward and let common people's culture penetrate upward (cf. Bell 1989:49-50). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Common people are those who often have a limited notion about whom they are worshipping (cf. Jordan 1985:103). However, they come to offer incense and clean the environment of the temple regularly. They also donate money to the temple, even though in small amount. Common people partly accept the authority of local leaders, but have their own authorities to follow. We will see these authorities in the following chapters.(note.19) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Constitution of the People's Republic of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> permits the practice of "religions" such as Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity, while the Chinese popular religion is regarded as "feudal" and as "superstition." Therefore, until the 1980s, when there was some limited relaxation of government suppression, it was not practised publicly, and most of the local temples were converted into public buildings such as government offices, museums, or schools. Thus, the present-tense descriptions of the popular religion in this thesis refer to China Mainland before 1949 and also to some extent since the 1980s, and to Taiwan, Hong Kong, and the overseas areas up to present times and, thus, I will use the field data collected from other Chinese areas by other scholars for reference of the studies of the divine stones and trees in Taiwan. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Popular <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temples</st1:place></st1:city>: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a deity may be housed and worshipped at a family altar. However, there is often an impetus for the construction of a temple to house the deity both for the convenience of the public and as an indication that the deity truly belongs to the community and not to some private family (Baity 1975:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="284" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">284f</st1:chmetcnv>). A temple is a deity's "home" and "office" and therefore is often called a "palace" ("gong" or "miao"); it can range in size from a tiny roadside shrine to an enormous complex of buildings covering several acres. When the temple develops, several deities will be housed together and these are freely accessible to the general public for worship, prayer, festival, and requesting favours of the gods (Wu Lien-chin 1987:122). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In almost every part of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, local temples stand out from their drab surroundings in bursts of polychromatic splendour. In villages, the largest and most impressive buildings are often temples (Wu Lien-chin 1987:121). If a community has no public temple, outsiders might think it is because the community is too poor or there was no person of sufficient intelligence in the village to take the initial steps (cf. Smith (1899) 1969:137). But a temple is more than a home for a deity. It is often the centre of community affairs both sacred and secular where people meet and rest while their children play in the courtyard. The courtyard, flat and spacious, is used to dry rice during the harvest season. The temple is also a repository of the community's values: the elaborate decor in the temple is used to teach proper moral and social values to the young. Consequently, a temple is a symbol of its community. It is the centre of community activity and its symbol of unity (Cohen 1987:292); and it is a demonstration of common beliefs and common interests (Yang 1961:96; Diamond 1969:84; Wu Lien-chin 1987:132). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, most of the temples for the divine stones and trees are too humble to be community centres. Some of them are even difficult for people to find. No matter how humble the physical structure of the shrine is, it nevertheless serves as a place where common people talking and doing something religious will not be explained as superstitious. For this reason, all the divine stones and trees that I selected for field research are those that are located in shrines or temples.(note.20) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I am grateful to my supervisor Dr. Stewart McFarlane for advising me to do so. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">For much of the Mandarin Chinese terminology, the author has chosen to use the Pinyin romanization system, because it is clearest and most convenient for me and is becoming more and more widely used by scholars. However, I have kept the Yale or Wade- Giles systems in the quotations cited from other scholars' works.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">For romanizing Hollo words and names I follow the system outlined in Nicholas C. Bodman, Spoken <st1:place st="on">Amoy</st1:place> Hokkien (Kuala Lumpur: 1955). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ling Shun-sheng is the founder of the <st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename> of Academia Sinica and a late professor of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">National</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">Taiwan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>. In August, 1955, when Academia Sinica set up a preparatory office for the initiation of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>, he was appointed as its head to oversee advancement of research. In April, 1965, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place> was formally founded, with Ling Shun-sheng as its first director. In the same year, he was appointed by the National Council on Science Development as National Research Professor. In July, 1978, Ling passed away. In August, 1985, when the Institute relocated to its new building on the campus of Academia Sinica, it was named "The Ling Shun-sheng Hall" in memory of the founder who was a pioneer Chinese ethnologist. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The five monographs were written in Chinese with English abridgement. Therefore, most quotations cited in the following chapters are translated by me. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I shall develop the argument in the following chapters. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There is a stone, according to my field interview, which is currently worshipped by Han-Chinese as the Stone God (e.g. #S50, see Chapter Five for details) is originally venerated by <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> Aboriginals. However, it was not worshipped as "She". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">For example, an upright stone of about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="50" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">50 cm</st1:chmetcnv> in height (see figure 107) is worshipped on a family altar beside the Tree God of Lam- huin Ward (#T37) and regarded as the Stone God. Since the worship is not open to the public, I exclude the stone from the current field research. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Different languages as used here means that they are mutually unintelligible. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, although Mandarin speaking Chinese have accents from their provincial dialects, many of their Taiwan-born offspring have been localised and speak Hollo Language. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hollo is a language spoken in Southern <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Fujian Province</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:place>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Here, we should note that at the moment <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s early history has become a political issue. Both R.O.C. (Republic of China) and P.R.C. (People's Republic of China) governments claiming to represent China today maintain that the first settlers came from China and therefore see the island as an inalienable part of Chinese sovereign territory (Long 1991:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="2" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">2f</st1:chmetcnv>), and disagree with Taiwan independence from China. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In the early seventeenth century the Spanish also settled in Tamsui at the extreme northern tip of the island. While the Europeans appeared to get along peacefully enough with the Chinese settlers, they did not get on well with each other. In 1642 the Dutch succeeded in driving the Spanish from their northern stronghold and began to strengthen their grip on the entire island through the Dutch East India Company (Proksch 1984:15). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In contrast, the tribes that inhabited <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s mountain fastnesses remained beyond central government control until pacified by the Japanese in the early twentieth century (Shepherd 1984:2). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Because most of them still think they will go back to Mainland <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> and are unwilling to put down new roots in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, in this thesis I shall call them Mainlanders. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taoism, owing to its esoteric nature, is identified only with its priests (Wu Lien-chin 1987:107). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">This is to say, to a great extent the basic ideas coincide with beliefs and values that pervade Chinese culture as a whole (Cohen 1987:289). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I am aware that my using of the term "popular religion", in this thesis seems to divide Chinese culture neatly into great/little or elite/popular traditions (cf. Sangren 1988:674). However, there is less consensus on what new term ought to replace it. Besides, as we shall see in the following chapters, the religious concern and interpretation of the worshippers of the stone and tree deities can be distinguished from officials and elites. Therefore, I shall apply the term to emphasise this difference. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The report of Stephan Feuchtwang (1992:85) from his field site gives us a good example of local learders' religious attitude. Feuchtwang describes that one of pharmacists on Mountainstreet (i.e. the pseudonym of his field site in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>) told Feuchtwang that he did not make offerings on the day of the greatest of all procession festivals in Mountainstreet, the one which is organised every five years for the visit of a figure of Mazu from one of the Mazu pilgrimage. The festival was a commemoration of the first visit when an image of her was brought to a nearby hamlet to rid its crops off pestilence. The pharmacist said that it was nonsense to believe the goddess could keep the land clear of pestilence. But he organised a feast on the festival, as did every other household because otherwise people would think he was strange or miserly (Feuchtwang 1992:85). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The term "popular religion" is also to distinguish the religion from the "official religion" which was the system of officially sanctioned sacrifices administered by the imperial government. This "official religion" relates complexly to Confucian philosophy, sharing some underlying premises and values with it, but is more theistic in content and practice than "popular religion" (cf. Sangren 1988:674). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.20)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Grandfather of the Ancient <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">An-lam District</st1:placename></st1:place> (#S40; see figure 42) is an exception. It is located in a family altar instead of a shrine or temple. However, because the worship is open to the public, I did not rule it out from my field research. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-19168980259269191862008-02-14T02:19:00.000-08:002008-02-17T02:20:44.717-08:00Chapter Two: Textual References to Divine Stones and Trees<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chapter Two: Textual References to Divine Stones and Trees <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I. Introduction: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In the earliest written records, Chinese people, like many other peoples in the world, are represented as already practising the worship of natural objects (cf. Hartland 1917b; Bonsall 1934:22; Edsman 1987:49). Early Chinese writers tell us that Fuxi, a mytho-historical ruler, was the first emperor to organise sacrifices to, and worship of certain natural features. In this he was followed by the Yellow Emperor, also a mytho-historical emperor, who first established the worship of the sun, the moon, and the five planets (Giles 1905:8). The Shijing (the Book of Odes) refers this sacrifice as far back as the period of the mytho-historical emperor Shun, and there is ample evidence that in the days of Confucius it was offered in all the feudal states into which the kingdom was then divided, not only on regular occasions, but also in times of flood, drought, pestilence, or illness of the ruler. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The worship of natural objects was, so far as we can learn from records, at first purely local, such as the hills, streams and so on as the most conspicuous natural features of the land in which Chinese lived (e.g. Berkovits and others 1969:76; Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958c</st1:chmetcnv>:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="56" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">56f</st1:chmetcnv>; Allan 1979:3). There is an ancient rite called the "Wang" ("to Look Forwards"), and the very name of this sacrifice suggests that it was offered in the neighbourhood of the particular hill or stream which was the object of worship (Bonsall 1934:22; Granet 1975:73). For example, the river Fen was an object of worship in the Wang sacrifice (Bonsall 1934:27). An essential element of this worship was the belief in an intimate connection between human conduct and natural phenomena. The Shijing insists that when bad government prevails, not only is man thrown into confusion, but the elements themselves are disturbed, and the beasts and vegetation depart from their proper course (Bonsall 1934:24). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Later on, some of these natural features were objectified in the ancient altar, which in time came to be thought of as the guardian deity of the place (Day 1974:61-62), while some worships of natural features became the occasion for big festivals, for instance the worship of the moon. By the beginning of the Qin Dynasty, in 219 BCE, the festival had developed into one of many colourful activities, and took a strong hold in the religious activities of a majority of the population in Chinese society (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:95-7). From the Tang Dynasty (713-905 CE.) onwards, it has been a universal custom for the Chinese family to gather all its members from far and wide once each year, and worship the moon together. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In the present chapter, I am not able to give a complete account of Chinese worship of natural objects. Instead, I shall employ some textual data to give a general portrait of divine stones and trees - which are directly relevant to this thesis. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">II. Textual References to Divine Stones: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There are some textual references relating to divine stones.(note.1) One of the most frequently mentioned is the anecdote about the spiritual bond between the eccentric artist Mifu (1051-1107) and his Shixiong, "the Elder Brother Stone" (cf. Hay 1985:33-5; Wang Jing 1992:178). When this eccentric artist encountered a big stone, he regarded it as divine, bowed down with respect and called it "the Elder Brother Stone". In addition to the anecdote, rain-making stones, evil-warding stones, fertility stones, and Geomancy stones are well-recorded in texts. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1, Rain-making Stones: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Before the invention of modern irrigation systems, China was plagued with unpredictable rains and frequent droughts, and consequently the Chinese people have always felt a great concern for the provision of the most important natural source of water - rain in due season. However, this concern for timely rains has not been passive. On the contrary, it has manifested itself in numerous rainmaking "methods" intended to insure a sufficiency of water. These methods covered a full range of procedures from benign prayers through violent coercion of the rain deities (Cohen 1978:244).(note.2) For instance, there are legends about stones with rain-making capability. The first example of this comes from a text Jingzhouji written by Sheng Hongzhi during the fifth century. In Hengshan (County) of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Hebei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>, <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">... there is a solitary mountain standing high and precipitous. On its north-east side there is a stone cave. If one takes a candle and goes in about one hundred paces there will be two big stones standing about ten feet apart. The common name for one is the Yang Stone, and for the other the Yin Stone. When there is calamity from drought or flood, one whips the Yang stone and then it rains, or one whips the Yin Stone and the sky clears (Cohen 1978:250). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In this instance, the underlying conception seems to be that one whips the stone that is overactive in its function. In other words, since Yang produces heat and dryness, when it produces too much it must forcibly be caused to reduce its energy and allow the Yin, which produces cold and wetness, to function, and vice versa (Cohen 1978:250).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A similar method texted also in Jingzhouji produced mixed results. The text says that if one takes a torch into a stone cave and goes in about one hundred paces, there will be two big stones, both standing erect in the cave about ten feet apart. They are commonly called the Yin and Yang Stones. The Yin Stone is always moist and Yang Stone is always parched. Whenever floods or drought are beyond control, the local people dress in fine costumes and ornaments, and go into the cave. If there is drought they whip the Yin Stone, and in due time it rains. If there is excessive rain then they whip the Yang Stone, and immediately the sky clears. According to the tradition that has been handed down, this is always efficacious (Cohen 1978:250-51). However, in this procedure, there were sometimes unpleasant consequences for the supplicant, because the one who wields the whip does not live long afterwards. Consequently, people loathe this custom and do not perform it (Cohen 1978:250-51). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In this second report one whips the stone to activate its energy, whereas in the first report the overactive stone was scourged. The associations of the Yinyang Stones with rain and drought, respectively, are conventional and were also emphasised in Dong Zhongshu's essays on making and stopping rain (Cohen 1978:251). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">So far, it is clear that the notion of "whipping the rain- making stones to produce rain", similar to that of medical treatment and geomancy, is based on the principle of the Yinyang balance.(note.3) At least since the late Zhou Period (fourth century BCE.), Chinese have believed that there are two opposing but interrelated active energies in the world (cf. Paper 1990:27). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese characters for Yin and Yang signify the shadowy and sunny sides respectively of the same mountain, which indicates the idea of two sides of the same existence, very similar to the Western saying: "two sides of the same coin." Yang represents sunshine, light, warm, positivity, masculinity, and associated with odd numbers (I shall translate the word "Yang" "positive energy" hereinafter). The Yin state is cloudy, dark, cold, negative, feminine, the earthy, and associated with even numbers (I shall translate the word "Yin" "negative energy" hereinafter) (cf. De Groot 1976:929). This conception implies that all things must have two sides, two aspects, two genders, or two energies. If the two interrelated active energies are balanced, the weather will be good. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">2, Evil-warding Stones: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The custom of using stones to ward off evil spirits has existed for more than a thousand years. Among them, the most frequently found are "Shi Gandang", so called by modern people because these words are inscribed upon them. According to Werner (1977:427), the use of these stones is mentioned as occurring in the Tang Dynasty, about 770 BCE, in the reign of the Emperor Taizong (763-80 CE.), and also in the reign-period 1041-9 CE. of the Emperor Renzong (1023-64 CE.) of the Song Dynasty. Nowadays, we can find these stones even in <st1:country-region st="on">Japan</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Korea</st1:place></st1:country-region> and many other Asian countries. Usually, they are placed in front of the main gate of a house or at the entrance of a street, or else at places subject to evil influences (cf. Wang Jing 1992:71). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In present-day <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, I discovered many stones of this type bearing the inscription "Shi Gandang" or "Taishan Shi Gandang". I also found that the top of some of these stones are carved with a character "Fo" ("Buddha") or an image of a tiger's head whose forehead bears the character "Wang" (i.e. King). The term "Taishan" means <st1:placetype st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Tai</st1:placename>, the <st1:placename st="on">Sacred</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype> of the East which is located in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Shandong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>. According to historical records, those who were named after "Shi" ("Stone") were numerous in <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Shandong</st1:place></st1:state>. In later dynasties, people also adopted the character for surnames. The term "Gandang" literally means "daring to undertake formidable tasks" or "invincible in the face of enemies". Thus, "Shi Gandang" means "Stone that dares to undertake formidable tasks in the face of enemies" (cf. Werner 1977:427; Wang Jing 1992:71). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese people believe that <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Tai</st1:placename></st1:place> is itself a deity or "Buddha", a powerful deity as well. Therefore, the inscription on these stones of "Shi Gandang", "Taishan", "Fo" ("Buddha") and/or an image of a tiger's head on these stones is a reinforcement of their power.(note.4) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">3, Fertility Stones: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese divine stones are commonly connected with fertilizing capability. The most typical of them is the story of the Stone Monkey in the well-known book entitled "The Travel to the West (Xiyouji)". The story says that a giant stone had existed since the creation of the world. It had been magically impregnated by the pure essences of Heaven and the fine scents of Earth, the vigor of sunshine and the grace of moonlight. One day the stone split open, gave birth to a stone egg, and developed into a stone monkey, complete with every organ and limb (Wu Ch'eng-en, trans. by Waley 1965:11). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In addition to the Stone Monkey, we know that the ancient Chinese hero "Houji", as well as "Qi", was said to be born of a stone (Granet 1975:92). Moreover, it is said that in the southeastern bank of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Horse</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>, a stone in the east gave birth to a little pebble; the stone in the west was pregnant with a pebble. People asked for their offspring and got their wishes fulfilled. They were thus named the birth-giving stones (cf. Wang Jing 1992:77). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wang Jing (1992:77) also quotes two more legends relating to the birth-giving stones. The first is that Gaolin's mother once made an ablution in a river.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">... She came across a stone of shiny colours and smooth texture, and brought it back with her. That night she dreamed of a man dressed as an immortal addressing her, "The stone is the sperm of the floating stone chime. If you treasure it dearly you will surely give birth to a son." Awakened from the dream in a shock, she sweated all over her body. In a short while, she became pregnant and gave birth to a son ...<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The second legend states that in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Sichuan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> there are two stones, separated by a river. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">[They] faced each other like man and wife. According to ancient legends, the stone in the east prayed for a child from the stone in the west, and returned with one. Therefore people who did not have offspring used to go there to pray. Their prayers were answered efficaciously (Wang Jing 1992:77-78)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Besides, in the famous book "Dongmingji", we find a noteworthy record that a country named Tiaoji offered a Horse- liver Stone as a tribute to the Court of China. It could be mixed up with the nine-winding cinnabar. Those who brushed their grey hair with this stone could change it black again (qtd. in Wang Jing 1992:75). This stone, though not a birth-giving stone, is able to change grey hair, a sign of aging and decline, to black hair, the symbol of youth and energy, and can therefore be counted as a life-giving stone. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In his masterpiece (<st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>; 1958b; <st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958c</st1:chmetcnv>), Burkhardt also notes that some divine stone in <st1:placename st="on">Hong Kong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Island</st1:placetype> and the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">New</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Territories</st1:placetype></st1:place> are fertility stones. These stones receive their tribute from engaged couples whose duty it is to ensure the perpetuation of the clan. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">4, Geomancy Stones: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">One of Graham's contributions (1961:114-15) to this subject is his finding regarding "Fengshui Shi" or "Geomancy Stones" near the Yangtze River, Southwest China. He reports that the stones regarded as the Geomancy Stone were numerous in this area and they are very often stones that are prominent in the landscape and strange and striking in appearance. Such stones are believed to affect for good "fengshui or "geomancy" of the family, city, or region concerned, they must not be cut or injured, for that would spoil the "geomancy" and bring calamities instead of good fortune to those involved. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">For example, somewhere on the north shore of the <st1:place st="on">Yangtze River</st1:place> (Graham 1961:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="114" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">114f</st1:chmetcnv>), there is a strange-looking rock that for decades has been the Geomancy Stone of an important family. A large, round, pointed rock that resembles the upright piece of wood to which boatmen attach their oars is the Geomancy Stone of the nearby village. Across the Yangtze River from <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Anbian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>, is a large rock on which many boats have been wrecked every year, with much loss of life and property. It could easily be broken to pieces and removed at the time of low water, but the people are afraid to do so. It is the Geomancy Stone of Anbian, and if it should be injured or destroyed, much harm would ensue to the people of Anbian. (note.5) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">III. Textual References to Divine Trees: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The belief in sacred trees is also wide-spread in the Chinese world. There are many stories in Chinese texts regarding trees that have performed miracles or cured people's illness. There are records even relating that trees cried aloud with pain when they were cut down (Morgan 1942:110). There is a textual record that certain trees in <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zhejiang</st1:place></st1:state> got official recognition as deities (Eberhard 1970:23, 256). In the historical book Taiping Guangji (XXV, 315. <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="41" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">41a</st1:chmetcnv>; tenth century), it is said that there existed a tree in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Jiangxi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> which received girls, sheep, and pigs as sacrifices (Eberhard 1970:23, 256). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, according to the records of certain field researchers, divine trees are still venerated in various sequestered corners of Chinese society such as Hong Kong (Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:122; 1958b:151), Zhejiang Province, the south of Guangdong Province, Guangxi Province (Eberhard 1970:21-3), Sichuan Province (Graham 1936:61).(note.6) In the following paragraphs, I shall introduce four types of divine trees: geomancy trees, miracle trees, the tree Land God, and temple trees of the Land God. (note.7) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1, Geomancy Trees: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There are a great many geomancy trees in <st1:place st="on">West China</st1:place> as described by Graham (1961:113-14). The geomancy tree may be a banyan, a cypress, a pine, or some other kind of a tree, but it is always a large and/or old tree. He reports that near the sacred cave called "Jinsha Dong" ("the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Golden-sand</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Cave</st1:placetype></st1:place>"), there is the geomancy tree of a powerful local family. Near a monastery on <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Emei</st1:placename></st1:place> is another great pine tree that is the geomancy tree of a city. In the rear of another monastery on <st1:placetype st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Emei</st1:placename>, inside the temple and growing up through the roof is a great pine tree that is the geomancy tree of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Emei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> and is also worshipped as a god (cf. Frese & Gray 1987:27). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese people love Nature. The natural objects such as mountain, water, tree, and stone are synonymous with Nature. They are main foci of Chinese poetry and painting. A place consisting of these natural objects is generally regarded as a good geomancy place. Mountains shelter and protect the geomancy place. In places where mountains do not exist, big stones and trees may serve the same function of mountains. Geomancy trees in their places (e.g. family, city, or region, etc.), together with the geomancy stones described above, must not be cut or injured, for that would spoil the "geomancy". I think the reason is explainable according to Chinese cosmological ideas, especially of "the Five Elements (Wuxing)", that is, a stone or tree should be located at a certain point of a place which is regarded as a micro-cosmos, in order to induce a harmonious environment (cf. Feuchtwang <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1974" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1974a</st1:chmetcnv>; Wright 1977). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">2, Miracle Trees: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Trees that are venerated are usually large and/or elderly. However, ordinary trees can also be regarded as gods if they perform miracles. For example, in the 1920's in <st1:placename st="on">Ding</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> of <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Hebei</st1:place></st1:state> Province, there was the tale of a sick man who was told in a dream that he should make a drink from the bark of a certain old tree at the edge of a village. He did this and got well. The story spread; others strickened with sickness did the same, and many got well. Soon the tree became a busy shrine, bedecked with many banners presented by grateful worshippers to exalt the magical power of the tree god (Gamble 1954:412; cf. Yang 1961:353). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There is a legend that once during a war the enemy wanted to slaughter the people of a city, but would be willing to spare whoever was three feet above the ground. So people all climbed the trees and thus were saved. They regarded it as a miracle performed by the trees. Thereupon, the trees got temples and sacrifices (Eberhard 1970:255-56). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Feng (1970:20-21) also mentions a similar legend that at one time under a dynasty, a city was supposed to be destroyed, and the only favour that the highest official was able to obtain was that everything located three feet or more above ground might be saved. Thereupon, the entire populace climbed up trees, so as not to die. For this reason, the trees were later considered to be gods who saved their lives. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temples</st1:place></st1:city> were built in their honour and sacrifices made. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">3, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tree</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype></st1:place> God: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Some sacred trees are specifically considered as the Land God himself. Eberhard (1970:21-22) noticed that an enormous camphor tree with a built-in niche containing incense cones and an earthenware dish for sacrifices is worshipped as the Land God. Burkhardt (<st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:70) also mentions that in the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">New</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Territories</st1:placetype></st1:place>, almost every village has a sacred tree marked with honourific inscriptions which are worshipped as the Land God. some more <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">4, Temple Tree of the Land God: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Many scholars state that the altars of the Land God are usually built in front of or beside a huge tree (e.g. Proksch 1984:118; Overmyer 1987:260). These trees, though not worshipped, are regarded as divine. For instance, according to the field work of Chamberlayne (1966:170) in the North of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Hebei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>, many shrines for the Land God have only the simple form of a small altar with a tree and a bell. The bell is of course a religious instrument and the tree is, I think, the temple tree of the Land God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There is a story relating to this type of tree in the Chinese classical book "Zhuangzi". I quote the story as follows: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A wandering carpenter, called Stone, saw on his travels a gigantic old oak tree standing in a field near an earth- altar. The carpenter said to his apprentice, who was admiring the oak: This is a useless tree. If you wanted to make a ship, it would soon rot; if you wanted to make tools, they would break. You can't do anything useful with this tree, and that's why it has become so old." But in an inn, that same evening, when the carpenter went to sleep, the old oak tree appeared to him in his dream and said: "Why do you compare me to your cultivated trees such as white-thorn, pear, orange, and apple trees, and all the others that bear fruit, people attack and violate them. Their branches are broken, their twigs are torn. Their own gifts bring harm to them, and they cannot live out their natural span. That is what happens everywhere, and that is why I have long since tried to become completely useless. You poor mortal! Imagine if I had been useful in any way, would I have reached this size? Furthermore, you and I are both creatures, and how can one creature set himself so high as to judge another creature? You useless mortal man, what do you know about useless trees?" The carpenter woke up and meditated upon his dream, and later, when his apprentice asked him why just this one tree served to protect the earth-altar, he answered, "Keep your mouth shut! Let's hear no more about it! The tree grew here on purpose because anywhere else people would have ill-treated it. If it were not the tree of the earth-altar, it might have been chopped down" (Franz 1990:163).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">IV. Conclusion: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">From the above textual references we can see that stones which were regarded as divine are usually large (e.g. the Elder Brother Stone of the eccentric artist Mifu; the Rain-making Stones in the south of Hengshan County or in Dong Zhungshu's essays; the stone giving birth to the Stone Monkey) or strange in appearance (e.g. the stone that made Gaolin's mother pregnant; the Horse-liver Stone as a tribute to the Court of China; the stones regarded as the Geomancy Stone). Moreover, divine stones are usually regarded as having rain-making, evil-warding, fertilizing, and good-geomancy-bringing capability. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">After careful enquiries for a number of years (in 1924 and 1925, and again in 1935) in Sichuan Province, Graham (1936:59-61; 1961:114) found that large and aged trees such as cedar, banyan, cypress, pine, and other varieties sometimes are worshipped as divinities. Allan (1979:5) maintains that trees are considered as divine because of their unusually long life and immense appearance. The research of Burkhardt (1958b:119) in Hong Kong also asserts that the trees elaborately decorated and worshipped as gods are usually trees with long life. Moreover, after field study in the southern parts of China, Eberhard finds that trees that are worshipped are generally large trees (1970:21-22). Additionally, these trees were normally venerated as geomancy trees, miracle trees, the Land God, and temple tree of the Land God etc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In Chapter Three and onwards, the data which I collected from the field research in 1992-1994 will be applied to this study to see why and how the divine stones and trees are worshipped in present-day <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The most well-recorded and important type of divine stones in Chinese texts is "She" stones and the stone Land God. I shall discuss them in the following chapters. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In imperial times, when drought struck part of a province, the governor usually appealed to local deities to bring rain as it was believed that the timely production of rain was a part of the duty of the local gods. If in vain, he, acting as representative of the Emperor, who himself was the "Son of Heaven," could order them to see to their duty, treating them with as little ceremony as he would treat one of his county magistrates. Gods who failed in their duties could be tried and condemned to a public beating (cf. Eberhard 1970:257; Wolf 1974:144). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">If someone is sick, Chinese think he is in a Yinyang imbalance. To correct this, treatment often involves tonification (i.e. stimulating the lack) or suppression (i.e. reducing the excess) and restoring a balance (Frese & Gray 1987:27; Yeh Kaofang 1987:21). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Since these stones were usually hewn or inscribed with characters, I excluded them from the current field research. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">People have always been ambivalent about the Geomancy Stones, and the belief has been changed since 1929. Graham describes that formerly the streets of Yibin were very narrow, and in them were several large stones believed to be the Geomancy Stone. These stones made it more difficult for people to pass up and down, especially when carrying loads or sedan chairs. No one dared to chip them down so that they would not obstruct traffic - that would certainly cause calamities among the people of the city. In 1929 the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Yibin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> had a mayor who widened and paved the streets, and had stone masons chip away the stones. The act lessened people's fear of, and respect for, the Geomancy Stone. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There are also some tree legends in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Among them, the legend of the divine tree of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Sun</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">Moon</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place> is the most famous. According to a story recorded in a gazetteer of Zhanghua (Chang- hua) <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Taiwan</st1:placename> (cf. Yuan Chang-rue 1993:8), an Autumn Maple tree grew up overnight on the side of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Sun</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">Moon</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Lake</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The root of the tree stuck <st1:chmetcnv unitname="m" sourcevalue="20" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">20 m</st1:chmetcnv> deep in the lake, and the trunk towered <st1:chmetcnv unitname="m" sourcevalue="30" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">30 m</st1:chmetcnv> into the sky, where the tree leaves extended a coverage of 20 metres square. The local tribal people considered it as a divine tree. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">As soon as the tree had grown big, a child was born by a woman who was made pregnant by the Autumn Maple Tree in her dream. The child was named Guzong, and in time, grew into a man of strong stature and was chosen as the chief of the Tribe. The gazetteer states that in 1726, the Qing Government sent a troop to suppress Guzong who killed and robbed the people of neighbouring areas. In order to facilitate the suppression, the leader of the troop decided that the divine Autumn Maple Tree be cut down. Guzong, the tribal chief, and his two sons were thereupon caught and executed (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:8-9).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, according to the folk version of the story, the troop was unsuccessful in their first attempt of suppression. Soon, the leader of the troop was advised that Guzong, was actually the incarnation of the divine Autumn Maple Tree which must be uprooted to destroy his mystical power. By piercing the back of the tree all over and by applying dog blood to it, the divine tree was felled. It was at that very moment that Guzong drowned himself in the <st1:place st="on">Lake</st1:place> (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:9). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">By the same token, the most well-recorded and important type of divine trees in Chinese texts is "She" trees and the tree Land God. I shall discuss them in the following chapters. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-8144903945199551312008-02-13T02:23:00.000-08:002008-02-17T02:27:19.758-08:00Chapter Three: the Land God in Chinese Popular Religion<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> </span>I. Introduction:<span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Divine stones and trees are most often worshipped in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> as the Land God. The Land God (Tho.-tt-kong or Tudi Gong) is the most renowned deity in Chinese popular religion. He can be seen almost in every family and village, along roads, on the banks of canals, etc (cf. Chamberlayne 1966:167; Brim 1974; Werner 1977:528).(note.1) For instance, older residents of Tainan City claim that in former times every neighbourhood had its own Land God, and evidence gathered by Kristofer Schipper appears to bear them out (Schipper 1975; cf. Wolf 1974:134). John C. Ferguson says that: "the most persistent type of religious worship in <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> is that offered to the spirits of the Earth" (qtd. in Day 1974:59).(note.2) In <st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype>, there are 67 kinds of deities venerated in 545 temples (and shrines) registered themselves in the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">county</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">goverment</st1:placename></st1:place>. Among these temples, 168 are dedicated to the Land God. There are, I guess, more than two hundred Land God shrines which are not registered. Therefore, it is evident that he is the most popular deity in Yilan, and, possibly, in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The God is conceived of as in charge of a specific geographically defined jurisdiction. But even though the locality he controls is small,(note.3) he has a specific place in Chinese popular religion and is universally worshipped throughout Chinese societies. Thus arose the proverb, "The Land God is worshipped at the both sides of the field (Chhan-tau Chhan-bue Tho.-ti-kong)," attesting to the profusion of small shrines dotted amongst the fields and rice paddies. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Although not as powerful as the Heavenly Emperor or the Royal Lords, the deity is in charge of many things. Every house has its own Land God as guardian of the family.(note.4) Businessmen worship him for wealth and to guard their riches. Farmers worship him for agricultural fertility and harvests. Those who are in mountain areas adore him, because he is regarded as a god of mountains (Suan-sin). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, the graves of the properly buried and remembered each have their own tutelary deity. Although the deity is also said to be a kind of Land God, he is formally known, according to the title inscribed on the stone tablet beside every grave, as "Houtu" or "the Earth Governor" (Feuchtwang 1992:95; see figure 112).(note.5) When every year offerings are placed at the graves of ancestors, the Earth Governor receives side offerings accompanied by gold spirit-money (Feuchtwang 1992:49). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">II. Names and Images of the God: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">According to Yang (1961:97), the Cult of the Land God was introduced in the first century BCE. Schipper (1977:662-64) maintains that the indroduction derives from the politico- religious mass movement of that time. This mass movement tried to realise the ideal society of the past in a new world order based on the principle of Great Equality (Taiping). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The official name of the Land God is "Hok-tek cheng-sin" ("Fude Zhengshen"), which is translated as "Orthodox Spirit of Good Merit" by Schipper (1977:660).(note.6) However, he is colloquially called "Pak-kung" by Hakka people (Suenari 1985:36) and "Tho.-tt-kong" by Hollo people in Taiwan. That the Land God is referred to as "kong" might mean therefore that his image is always depicted as an old man. Many Chinese male deities are often referred to by this title. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There is no consensus among foreign scholars for the translation of the term Tho.-ti-kong (Tudi Gong). It is translated as "the earth god" (e.g. Ahern 1973:6; Fried 1974:131; Maspero 1981:3; Suenari 1985:36), "the Earth God" (e.g. Diamond 1969:99; Brim 1974:98; Wei & Coutanceau 1976:28; Werner 1977:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="413" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">413f</st1:chmetcnv>), "the Earth Gods" (e.g. Berkovits and others 1969:77), "the local earth gods" (e.g. Baity 1975:58), "the local god" (e.g. Smith (1899) 1969:138; Bredon & Mitrophanom 1927:456), "the Place Gods" (e.g. Sangren 1987:61). "the God of the locality" (e.g. Burkhardt 1958b:151), "the Locality God" (e.g. Wolf 1974:134; Feuchtwang 1992:47) "the gods of the Locality" (e.g. Maspero 1981:110), "the Tutelary Deity" (e.g. Baity 1975:273), "land gods" (e.g. Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="275" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">275f</st1:chmetcnv>). Moreover, Ling Shun-sheng translates it as "the local deities" (1967:133), "the god of earth" (1967:133) and "local divinities" (1967:136) to indicate the same deity in an article. Chamberlayne translates it as "the earth-god" (1966:167), the local gods (1966:166), "the local earth gods" (1966:164) and "the god of the soil (1966:167) to indicate the same deity in a article also. Some scholars even reserve the Hollo term "Tho.-ti-kong" to describe the god (e.g. Ahern 1973:7; Wang Shih-ch'ing 1974:81; Harrell 1981:131). These English translations are all valid, and indeed, they reflect different understandings of this deity. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, "Tho.-ti-kong" is sometimes thought of as a single being for all localities, and sometimes as a class of beings each of which rules over a particular piece of land. However, the most important function of the God is to be in charge of a piece of land or sometimes related to the land as a whole. Therefore, I shall translated the term "Tho.-ti-kong" as "the Land God" and it will be capitalised hereinafter.(note.7) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Land God can be worshipped with a stone or tree representing him and without any image or deity statue. However, if being worshipped with an image, he is usually depicted in pictures and in statues as a mild-faced, kind elder with a long white beard (e.g. Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="28" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">28f</st1:chmetcnv>; Proksch 1984:39; Sangren 1987:124),(note.8) wearing a round cap and the costume of local elder (Weller 1987:39).(note.9) Moreover, He is sometimes portrayed as holding a long walking stick in the right hand and nothing in his left hand, some with a long walking stick in the right hand and a golden ingot (guan-po) in left hand, some with a jade sceptre (Ju-i) in the right hand and a golden ingot in his left hand.(note.10) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I asked some respondents if there is any preference among these diverse images. They told me that it depends on the area the believers inhabit and the cult to which they adhere. For example, if the God is worshipped as the Earth Governor (Houtu; see figure 112), a statue with a long walking stick is preferred as they believe that without a stick to help him walking, the old God would be reluctant to patrol. But if the Land God is identified with a guardian of business or a god of wealth, a statue with a golden ingot and a jade sceptre is favoured because both objects in Chinese culture symbolise wealth (Schipper 1977:660). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Schipper also identifies the round cap that the God wears as "Yuanwai Mao" of wealthy country elders with no official rank but great influence.(note.11) The portrayal is typical to the traditional local leaders whose virtue and experience have earned them the respect of all (1977:660-64). We might say that because respect for the aged is an important value in Chinese social ideology, in order to pay respect to the Land God much beloved by adherents, they moulded him as a kind, old local elder with a round cap. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, there are some divergences. For example, some statues of the Land God wear the official hat and official robe. I was told in some field sites that as long as an official who was born in this locality governed the Land God, the statue of the Land God of the locality is permitted to wear official clothes. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The God also appears riding on the back of a tiger (cf. Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="28" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">28f</st1:chmetcnv>). I was told that only the Land God who governs the mountain areas is depicted as tiger-riding. In addition, at the ritual of the universal salvation (pudu), the God is constructed with bamboo and paper as brightly coloured, human-sized images with fearsome faces standing directly in front of the temple that hosts the ritual (Weller 1987:18). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Once the specific function of the Land God is decided, people go to a deity statue sculpture workshop. They explain to the sculptor what image they prefer. The sculptor, then, mold a statue according to a image book. The image book consists of the statue images of most popular deities. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">III. Distinctive Traits of the God: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There are some traits that distinguish the Land God from other Chinese deities. The most important of these is that he is territorially bound. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1, Territorially Bound:<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">There are some Chinese sayings such as "the God at the East end of the village is helpless at the West" (Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:155) or "if the God of the Soil of the east mountain goes to the west mountain, he will not be efficacious", so that "the T'u-ti at the east end is powerless at the west end" (Chamberlayne 1966:171). Nonetheless, the saying that "The Land God is worshipped at both sides of the field (Chhan-thau Chhan-bue Tho.-ti-kong)", on the one hand, portrays the popularity of the God, but on the other hand, it illustrates the fact that the God of one part of a locality has no control over the rest of that locality.(note.12) Actually, the Land God is conceived of as in charge of a specific geographically defined jurisdiction, within which his duties are usually compared by informants to those of a "local policeman" or "local junior official" (cf. Jordan 1994:153).(note.13) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Because of the territorial boundedness of the God, usually he is worshipped only by those people belonging to his district and not by outsiders. Whoever moves to a new district must accept the duties of the cult there, and whoever leaves a district is likewise relieved of any and all cult responsibilities. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">2, Office instead of Person: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">It is of interest that the term "Land God" or "Fude Zhengshen" is a title of office and not the honourific title of a single specific person. Usually, even though worshippers do not care much about the distinction, for the ritual specialists and people who take more than a casual interest in temple affairs, the divine titles of deities can be commonly divided into two types, personal titles and titles of office. The divine title such as "Fuyou Dijun" ("the Trusted and Helpful Imperial Lord") for the god Lyu Dongbin, "Kaizhang Shengwang" ("First Divine Patriarch of Zhangzhou Prefecture") for the god Chen Yuanguang, "Zhongtan Yuanshuai" ("Guardian of the Central Altar") for the deity Li Nozha, are all titles for specific persons. They are usually thought of as particular deified persons with saintly qualities, the emphasis being on the deity's moral character and good works (cf. Wolf 1974:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="140" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">140f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">On the other hand, there are titles of office, the most notable of which are "Tian'gong", "Chenghuang" and "Fude Zhengshen". These titles are explicitly compared with the imperial bureaucracy and often treated as administrative positions that can be occupied by different people. Any person may be elected to an office after his death. There are many legends telling of changes made in who should be deified as the Land God, or the City God. The previous one was either promoted or demoted and a new person took over (cf. Werner 1977:528; Cohen 1987:291). Partly due to this specific trait, there are so many different legends delineating the origins of the Land God (Baity 1975:245). I shall narrate these legends in the following sections of this chapter and in the next chapters. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">3, Usually Worshipped at Home: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, people usually worship the Land God, among other gods, in their family altar everyday instead of going to temple. On the first and fifteenth days of every lunar month (that is, at the new moon and the full moon) (Sangren 1987:62; Weller 1987:30), he is especially venerated with incense and sometimes several kinds of sacrifices. However, businesses usually stay open on the first and fifteenth to take advantage of the twice-a- month activity, so businessmen such as stall-holders, traders, shop-keepers etc. because they worship the Land God as a wealth god, conduct these rituals instead on the second and sixteenth day of the each lunar month and also have feasts given by employers for their workers (Weller 1987:55). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Almost every locality has its own Land God temple. However, due to the distance or other factors, many people only go to the God's temple twice-monthly or for his birthday festival annually, and worship the God at the family altar everyday (cf. Harrell 1981:133; Feuchtwang 1992:40). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Every traditional Taiwanese family has an altar to carry out some important aspects of religious activities such as the worship of the Land God. The altar stands in the main hall or living room of the family, opposite the principal door. The family altar is usually called the "red table" (cf. Jordan 1985:93).(note.14) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The worship of the Land God at home is usually carried out by the seniors in the family. Since the seniors are prominent in the lives of young children, the example and instruction they provide are major influences on the children's later religious attitudes. The seniors tell religious stories, show children how to practise rituals. Secular education in modern schools often derides popular religion as "superstition," but many of the basic religious conceptions of the young are shaped by the activities of the family (cf. Cohen 1987:293). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">4, Unique Location of His <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city>: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The location of a temple of the Land God is very important for local people. Usually, it is situated on the edge of the locality (Jordan 1994:153) and should face the upper reach of the biggest stream in order to "guard (the locality) at the end of the stream" ("pe chui-buei") while other deities do not have such a function. Sometimes a dispute might arise over the locality or direction of the Land God temple should face. If this is the case, the God is supposed to decide the site and orientation of its own temple (Wang Shih-ch'ing 1974:83). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">IV. Main Functions of the God: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Land God is multi-functioned in Chinese popular religion. However, the main task of the Land God is to look after the piece of land he governs. He is indispensable to everything concerning the land. For example, the belief is that it might be dangerous to break the earth, since it contains "energies" which are hard to deal with (Cohen 1987:290). Therefore, when the first breaking of earth on a new site takes place for construction or destruction of a house, a temple, a grave, a bridge, or the like, an important person is to be invited to host the ceremony of "Ground-breaking" ("Pho-tho").(note.15) This is marked by the presentation of offerings on the ground to the Land God who governs this piece of land. Only after the host has asked the permission of the God, the piece of land can be broken (Day 1974:67; Wolf 1974:134; Feuchtwang 1992:94). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">He is of considerable importance in farming villages, since he is in charge of the land and prosperity; the quality of the crops depends on him.(note.16) No Chinese peasant is supposed to plough his lands until the Land God is worshipped. In traditional <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, farmers place small piles of seed in the places where they hope that later great heaps of grain will stand. Various types of grain and cereals are deposited as the centre of successive circles to grant a plenteous harvest in the present year. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Land God is also the patron deity of farmers. A legend states that the Land God was the agricultural official under Emperor Yao. People worship him because he first taught agricultural skills. Also, a legend describes that the Land God was Mr. Go., a retired official who taught agricultural skills to farmers. Therefore farmers asked the City God to apotheosise him "Hok-tek Cheng-sin". However, the custom that placing small piles of seed by farmers is different from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In Taiwan, farmers usually place small piles of rice seed in front of or in the hand of Emperor Shennong, a legendary hero who is said to be the inventor of the plough and the first Chinese agriculturist (cf. Werner 1977:415).(note.17) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In addition to asking the God for a good harvest, farmers may ask him to do various things. In <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Nantou</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>, pioneering farmers of the area built temples of the Land God for warding off hostile aborigines (Liu Zhiwan 1961:117). The banana farmers built temples for the God to get rid of wild swine (Liu Zhiwan 1961:117). After they settled down in this area, they started to ask the God for improving health and curing diseases (Liu Zhiwan 1961:118). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">2, In Charge of Wandering Souls: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Harrell (1974:196) describes that there is a small shrine in a village in the southern <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city> basin that houses bones dug up when a road into the area was being constructed. After it was built, a temple of the Land God was also built a short distance down the road. He remarks that it is so because visitors to the area would see god (i.e. the Land God) before they saw the wandering souls which are supposed housed in the small shrine. He adds that similar constructions can be found by roadsides and in cemeteries throughout <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Correspondingly, Ahern (1981:405) also records that there is a slaughter house in a village, where buffalo and horses are frequently slaughtered. People in the community were so fearful of the dangerous souls of the slaughtered animals - it was said that one could hear their screams at night - that the owner of the factory built a special temple of the Land God on the premises to control them. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">These two field workers, however, offer no explanation for the choice of the Land God, as opposed to some other deity, in these cases. In fact, according to Chinese popular religion, one of the main tasks of the Land God is to be in charge of souls. Chamberlayne (1966:177) records that when the first signs of approaching death appear, the ceremony of "summoning back the soul" of the dying one takes place. Usually the family and friends will go to the shrine of the Land God of the locality, where they light incense-sticks and candles before the God whilst they call out, "Come back, So and So". Then other members of the party will reply, "He has returned". This may occur a large number of times. The Land God is here invoked to help in calling back the soul of the dying person. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">When the death has taken place, then the Land God has to be informed. As soon as night sets in, the members of the family light up lanterns, and, weeping, proceed to inform the God. On arrival, they inform him that a member of the family has departed this life. They beg the God to show kindness towards him, stating that during his earthly life he was weak and infirm and toiled hard along the pathway of life. After a display of firecrackers and the offering of incense, everyone returns home. On the second day, the family return - dressed as before in white, with sackcloth bands around their hair - to receive back the soul, which they believe has been hospitably cared for in the temple of the Land God (cf. Chamberlayne 1966:177). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the souls of the deceased are believed to be wandering about in the underworld. The Land God, then, comes to lead the souls there (Sangren 1987:138). When they wash their hands with the water offered by the God, they will notice their hands are beginning to rot and realise that they are dead (Feuchtwang 1974b:120). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">From the role that the Land God plays in the following two rituals recorded by Ahern (1973:221-5) in a small village in northern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> we can also understand the Land God is in charge of souls. The first one is his performance in an episode of a rite known as "the Rite of Merit" (Cho-kong-tek). Most people in the village studied by Ahern insisted that although their ancestors might commit some wrong or other, none of them would suffer miserable reincarnation since "the Rite of Merit" performed on the eve of the funeral would cancel out all misdemeanors.(note.18) The performance requires the services of a ritual specialist and several assistants. It was said that because the road to the underworld is beset by dangerous monsters and unknown obstacles, the deceased might succumb to some fatal disaster long before arriving unless he or she receives the help of the rite. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">When all was arranged, a musician played a jaunty tune on a stringed instrument while an assistant hobbled in, dressed like an old man. With his white beard, staff, and bent frame, he was immediately recognised by everyone as the Land God. At first, the God simply wandered around the audience, making jokes and delighting the children, but eventually, the priest, who acted as the descendants' emissary, told him that someone needs help crossing the bridge into the underworld; at this the cloth stretched between the two tables became the centre of attention as a representation of the bridge. The Land God began to circle the bridge, followed by a line of the deceased's direct descendants. As they circle, the Land God talked about how difficult it was to cross the bridge without the help of a god because of the terrible monsters and demons waiting below to snatch up anyone who took a wrong step (Ahern 1973:223). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The descendants, knowing that the God must be paid for such an invaluable service, dropped coins into a bowl under the table every time they completed a circle. The Land God led them on and on, until the amount of money collected satisfied him. He often urged them to make more donations by exclaiming that the prices of food and medicine had gone up recently, and that a person needed more money to live on today. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Occasionally, the priest interrupted to plead that there was enough money in the pot and to ask that the Land God consent to lead the deceased across. Finally, the God agreed, collected his money, and hobbled off stage. Then after the descendants slowly walk the length of the cloth bridge and ensured the dead had been safely guided across the dangerous outskirts of the underworld and had been given ample funds to provide himself with food and protection while he was there, the performance was completed. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The second ritual referred to as "looking around the underworld" (Kuan-lt-im) is also performed with the help of an appropriate ritual specialist (Ahern 1973:228-231). Through the ritual, people were able to descend into the underworld in hopes of catching a glimpse of a deceased relative or of finding an explanation of misfortune in the underworld. When the specialist who possessed the necessary knowledge of incantation came to the village, he put a client in trance and begin to shake. Finally, he said quietly, in a low voice, "There's no road." When the client repeated that he could not find the road, the specialist decided that the problem must be the Land God who led the way wanting money. Accordingly, he began to burn paper money for the Land God on the floor in front of the entranced client. Only when satisfied amount of money offered, would the God lead the way. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Thus, we can now understand the choice of a Land God temple in the ethnographic cases reported by Harrell and Ahern, and cited above. The Land God is able to keep dangerous souls at distance from the community or field where people inhabit (Berkovits and others 1969:76; Wolf 1974:134) and thus serves as the boundary marker between mankind and the ghosts (e.g. see figures 110 & 111). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">3, Symbol of Community: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">One important function of the Land God in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> is that he or his temple is a symbol of community. Only after a temple to him is installed is a sense of community established. The field reports written by many scholars appear to bear this out. Ahern (1973:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="27" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">27f</st1:chmetcnv>), in her field site, was often told by a local leader that the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of the settlement is "for everyone who lives here. We all live in the same place and worship at the same earth-god temple."(note.19) Harrell (1981:131) observes that all the villagers of a settlement, and no outsiders, participate in its yearly festival at a temple of the Land God. The organisation of religious rituals thus supports geography and formal administration in defining the settlement as a discrete community, separate from its neighbouring communities. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">If a household moves to the territory, it then participates in the festival of the Land God in its new neighbourhood rather than that in its old one (Sangren 1987:93). The festival of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Mazu</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">Goddess</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Songshan, the biggest festival of the area, each of the 13 administrative units which are territorially defined for the big festival is based on its own Land God temple. When an administrative unit is split up generally a new temple is built for the new unit (cf. Baity 1975:273). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">From my field interview, I was told that originally the dwellers of Khe-te hamlet had to go to worship the Land God at another village where they are from. About 20 years ago, when the dwellers of the hamlet became numerous, they could not tolerate not having their own Land God temple to guard their own hamlet, so they worked to built the temple.(note.20) Similarly, Suenari (1985:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="37" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">37f</st1:chmetcnv>) reports that a shrine of the Land God, one of the oldest in the area where he did research, had many worshippers from a newly established market street in spite of its location in the paddy field. But the number of worshippers decreased to a few after a new shrine of the Land God was built on the market street since the residents of the street came to worship their own new shrine on the street. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The field work of Wang Shih-ch'ing (1974:80-82) in the Shulin area of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taipei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> can also indicate that Taiwanese regard the Land God temple as a symbol of a community. From the time of its earliest settlement, the history of the Shulin area has been one of amalgamation, of people of diverse origins uniting to create organisations that overcome their differences. The first example is the establishment of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Tandi District. Tandi was a district of ethnic strife between residents with diverse origins. However, after many difficulties, the residents there started considering themselves a community and decided to establish a temple for the Land God in 1765. They contributed money to buy a piece of paddy land that was given over to the support of the temple and annual worship of the Land God to demonstrate that they were all members of a community. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A second example is the settlement of Lan lineage. Despite the fact that Lan lineage resided in Sanjiaopu District, they did not participate in the festival of the Land God there. Instead, because they considered themselves as an independent social unit from the District, they set up their own <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A third example about the establishment of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> in Pengcuo District is noteworthy. Despite its early settlement and its importance as the site of a rent-collection station, Pengcuo was the last district to establish a <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> among its surroundings. Of the eight districts into which the Shulin area was partitioned during the Qing Dynasty, Pengcuo District had the deepest ethnic divisions. Its settlers included Hakka people from <st1:placename st="on">Guangdong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype> as well as Hollo people from both <st1:placename st="on">Zhangzhou</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype> and <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Quanzhou</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Hollo people from Zhangzhou Prefecture and Quanzhou Prefecture of this district fought each other many times; having gained an advantage, they declared a truce in 1861, at which time they blamed their troubles on their Hakka neighbours and drove them out of the area. To affirm the truce, and perhaps also to celebrate their victory over the Hakka, they jointly built a temple of the Land God and purchased a piece of paddy land, donating its earnings to the temple as an endowment (Wang Shih- ch'ing 1974:81). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In fact, the worship of a common god can provide an unusual, if not unique, possibility for the residents to interact in occasions such as reciprocal exchanges of helping hands and gifts in rituals of life crisis, owning the common property and sharing the decision making process. It acts as a cohesive force to transcend the threat of the narrowly compartmentalised interests of the family as well as the clan, immigrant groups, or ethnic loyalties among the same community (cf. Ahern 1973:71; Wang Shih- ch'ing 1974:80-82; Baity 1975:238; Suenari 1985:29; Overmyer 1987:281) to the state of "following the custom of the neighbourhood".(note.21) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">It is remarkable that since the Land God is not an ancestor who is always venerated by a family or a lineage, nor is he a particular god such as the Three Mountain Kings (Sam-san Kok-ong or Sanshan Guowang) who was usually worshipped by an ethnic people, through creating and maintaining of the temple of the Land God, all residents of the same settlement expect to cooperate.(note.22) This might be one of the reasons that Taiwanese people like to choose the Land God to be their community god. (note.23) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">4, Patron Deity of Wealth: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In some areas of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Land God is worshipped with two figures. On the left hand side, there is the figure of a boy - called Tongnan (the Boy) or Jintong (the Golden Boy). On the right hand side, there is the figure of a girl - called Tongnyu (the Girl) or Yu'nyu (the Jade Girl). These two children are believed to be very auspicious in bringing wealth and precious gifts, especially fertility, to the village (Chamberlayne 1966:173). Sometimes, the wife of the Land God is also associated with a patron deity of wealth (Day 1974:65). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Land God is held to be a god of wealth. There is a widespread legend narrating that the God was originally a "Shoucainu", a "slave who zealously guarded the money of his wealthy master" (Schipper 1977:661). Another legend states that the name of the Land God was Tongxiao who lived on the earth one hundred years ago. During his mortal life, he gave his wealth to the poor and engaged in many charitable works, but his property never decreased. Therefore it was said that his possessions were bequeathed to him from the heavens, and were an inexhaustible supply (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="31" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">31f</st1:chmetcnv>), as would be suitable for a god of wealth. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In fact, it is unlikely that a shop is without the statue of the deity. Many people told Schipper that "there would be nobody to guard the money," when he asked friends in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Tainan</st1:place></st1:city> why a street without the Land God might be subject to ridicule (1977:772).(note.24) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">5, Recorder and Reporter: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The God is also believed to keep records of all that goes on of the locality and report the same regularly to the City God, his superior. While customs vary, usually the announcement of births and deaths and other important events in the village is made at the temple of the Land God (Hodous 1929:62). Wolf (1974:134) also notes that most people in the Sanxia area reported vital events to the God (Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="154" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">154f</st1:chmetcnv>; 1958b:151; Maspero 1981:111). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">V. Guardian of Community: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">From the above descriptions, especially of the five major functions of the Land God, it is not surprising that Taiwanese regard him as the guardian of community. Actually, each community considered independent from others has its own altar of the Land God. Schipper (1977:770) notes that the Land God played an important role as the first cult established by new settlers' communities to protect them against demons and aborigines alike when the island was being colonised. There is a widespread legend that in ancient times a courageous county official drove out ghosts from one locality after another with such vigor that they dared not return, he was deified as the Land God (Schipper 1977:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="660" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">660f</st1:chmetcnv>) to guard the community. A legend collected by Baity (1975:245) has a similar notion. It says that the head monk of <st1:placename st="on">Zhonghe</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city> was a venerable old man of 94 at the time that his study was undertaken. He had a wife a few years his junior, as well as a son. Some of his parishioners were heard to say that after he died, he might hopefully become the Land God of his parish, meaning that his spirit might guard the area from evil. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">During my field work, I heard an interesting story. It is that about five years ago, a young man came from neighbouring county to the site of the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23) to build a sheet-metal shelter for the God. The act surprised the neighbours of the God. He explained that: "My father came to tell me in a dream that he was a good man when he lived in the world. When he died, he was deified and was appointed to become the Land God of this area to guard it". "But unfortunately," he continued: "he told me that because the temple has no big tree to shade, he was very hot here. Therefore he asked me to build the shelter here for shade (see figure 24)." (note.25) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Xinzhu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>, I found a deity statue of the Land God whose face looks different from Han Chinese people. I was told by a deity statue sculptor that it is "the aboriginal Land God" ("Huan-a Tho.-ti"). He told me that before the Chinese came, the area was inhabited by an aboriginal tribe. In memory of the aboriginal landowners of the area, Chinese worship them as the Land God of this area and hope that "the aboriginal Land God" will guard the community. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">From the role that the Land God plays in the rite "Nocturnal Detecting" and the procession the goddess Mazu in a town we can also observe that the Land God is considered as the guardian of the community. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The rite "Nocturnal Detecting" ("Am-hong") is a religious procession for the purpose of expelling malign influences from an area. The most well-known of these rites is held in a historical town in central <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. I summarise a rite described by DeGlopper (1974:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="47" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">47f</st1:chmetcnv>) below: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">After dark a procession of perhaps fifteen deities in sedan chairs passes along every street and alley in the town all night in near silence and near total darkness. Householders, usually in their night clothes, stand in their doorways with incense sticks and worship as the deities pass. The participants are mostly young men in their regular clothes and are not expected to go into trance.(note.26) There is an intense but somewhat hurried and furtive atmosphere about the whole event. The rite is rather spooky. There are no bands, no floats, no costumed troupes of performers one sees in processions in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Most importantly, the rite is led by the Land God together with the City God. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">On the day of a festival of the goddess Mazu of a town in north <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> where Sangren (1987:99) conducted his field research, the statues of the goddess accompanied by many gods, are carried in procession through the temple's domain. Before the procession, which begins about nine o'clock in the morning, many households not scheduled to sacrifice pigs bring less elaborate offerings to the tables in front of their homes. At the head of the procession is the Land God, followed by the god Kaizhang Shengwang (First Divine Patriarch of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Zhangzhou</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype></st1:place>), and then the temple's own statue of the goddess, and finally, three visiting goddess statues. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Some scholars even observe that in traditional Chinese world, any offence against the moral law of a community is considered an offence against the Land God who guards it (Bredon & Mitrophanom 1927:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="455" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">455f</st1:chmetcnv>; Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="154" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">154f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">VI. The Earth Governor and the Land God: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Probably because Chinese believe that souls dwell in somewhere under the land, in Taiwan and generally in southeastern China, the grave site is guarded by the Earth Governor ("Hio- tho." or "Houtu") who is also regarded as a kind of Land God. When represented by a stone tablet by the side of the grave, the name is read as Houtu, and when represented by an image, it is depicted exactly the same as the Land God (cf. Hodous 1929:59; Diamond 1969:99; Schipper 1977:770; Paper 1990:31) and of course male.(note.27) When people visit the graves, they also worship the Earth Governor. One day, Ahern (1973:166) was told by a family that it could not find the site of one of its ancestors' grave. After looking in vain for hours, the family burned prodigious amounts of spirit money for the Land God, asking him to help in the search. This verified that the Land God is occasionally identified with the Earth Governor. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, the myth of the Earth Governor is slightly different from the Land God that guards hamlet, street, or ward territory (Feuchtwang 1974b:121). For instance, a legend says that a man, only three days after marrying, was called to do military service and was killed on duty at the <st1:place st="on">Great Wall of China</st1:place>. His soul visited his wife in a dream, begging her to come and find his bones to bury them properly. But when she came to the Great Wall, there were so many bones that she did not know how to identify her husband's. An old man with a white beard, the Land God, advised her that if she cut her finger and let blood drop from it the bones at which it would stop dripping would be those of her husband.(note.28) In this way she found and collected her husband's bones together in her skirts and carried them home weeping. She wept so profusely on to the bones that they began to come to life again. But the Land God considered it unjust that her husband should be singled out from the other soldiers to be brought back to life. When the wife had to go and find food to eat he offered to guard the reviving bones for her. On her return she found that they had lost their life again. She was very angry, and that is why there is a stone represented the Land God beside every grave; "to keep the dead dead" (Feuchtwang 1992:95). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A similar legend tells the story of a heroine Meng Jiangnyu, who, having lost her father, longed in vain for a husband. As the First Emperor of Qin Dynasty was then building the Great Wall, he called up all young men. Wan Xiliang did not want to go and hid away from his home. On the fifth day of the fifth month (Dragon Boat Festival) he was in the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">garden</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Meng Jiangnyu</st1:placename></st1:place>'s house. When she came out of the house, the lad hid in a tree above a pond. Meng Jiangnyu proceeded to bathe in the pond, whereupon she saw the image of the boy reflected in the water. She told him that, having seen her nude, he had to marry her. A wedding feast was held, but the old man who ran the general store was not invited. He reported Wan Xiliang to the authorities. The young man died while doing forced labour at the Great Wall, and his corpse was incorporated into the structure. Meng Jiangnyu went to look for her husband. Her tears made the wall collapse and many skeletons were uncovered. An old man told her that the bones that would absorb her blood were those of her husband. She thus found the skeleton and as her tears fell upon them flesh grew anew on the bones. The old man told her that if she put the body in a bag, it would be easier to carry. She did so and it became a skeleton once again. Out of spite, Meng Jiangnyu transformed the old man into the guardian of her husband's grave (Schipper 1977:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="661" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">661f</st1:chmetcnv>), the Earth Governor to keep the body of Wan Xiliang.(note.29) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">VII. Conclusion: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">We have found that the belief of divine stones and trees recorded in textual data as the Land God, which has a very ancient basis as we saw in the last chapter, is also well preserved in modern Chinese society. The present chapter helps us understand the God better. We have identified several different traits and functions of the Land God. These traits communicate themselves in some degree to others (e.g. there is a common feature that he is depicted as a local elder devoted to his community) and are linked in a semantic chain: a local elder who is loyal to his locality transferred to a guardian of family, of community, of agriculture, of mountain, of grave, of business place, and thus wealth.(note.30) This fact clarifies why many Chinese elders devoted to their communities are thought as being deified as the Land God and that the term "the Land God" is a title of office and not the honourific title of a single specific person; why he is venerated at the family altar everyday; that he is worshipped only by those people belonging to the specific locality and not by outsiders; that he is territorially bound; that his temple is situated on the edge of the locality and should face the upper reach of the stream to guard the locality. (note.31) <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, no matter how the roles of the Land God are transferred and how these roles are semantically chained, he is, in Chinese popular religion, rather a "keeper" than a "challenger" of society. We see that being a locality god, he keeps hostile aborigines, wild swine, dangerous souls and others at distance from his locality. Being a community symbol, he transcends residents with diverse origins, making them homogeneous and keeping the heterogeneous people outside. In structuralist parlance, he is to "keep outsiders outside". Being a wealth god, he is the keeper of the shop's prosperity. Being a grave god, he is the boundary marker between mankind and the ghosts, namely, to "keep the dead dead". <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In addition, I believe the fact that the common feature that the God is always depicted as an local elder who is loyal to the piece of land he governs is hardly accidental or insignificant. I attribute this to the result of the standardisation of the Land God and will examine my hypothesis in the following chapters. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yang (1961:98) holds that the cult was particularly well developed in south <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I think the term "spirits of the Earth" refers to "Tudi Gong". <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese cosmology and the structure of imperial bureaucracy often correspond. Wolf (1974:131-82) argues that just as lower-level bureaucrats govern small administrative districts and higher-level officials control larger ones, so lesser gods reign over small local systems while more exalted gods rule the larger religion (see also Sangren 1983:5). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Not only the ground underneath the house, but the home itself, the walls and kitchen have their respective Land God. There are the protective Lanqian Tudi of the domestic stable; the Niu Tudi and Zhu Tudi protectors of the cows and pigs; the Gou Tudi of the drain-ditch; the Men Tudi and Buji Tudi of the cotton and the looms, respectively; as well as those very common Qiao Shen Tudi of the bridges and Shan Shen Tudi or mountain spirits beneath the graves. Moreover, for the convenience of the worshippers, entitled "Zhong Tu" or the "<st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">United</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype></st1:place> Gods" a means by which all piece of land governed by the Land God may be appeased at the same time (Day 1974:67). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I follow Karlgren's interpretation (1930:11) and translate the Mandarin term "Houtu" as "the Earth Governor". <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Schipper (1977:663) points out that the term "fute" or "good merit" appears to be of Buddhist origin, in connection with a kind of hostel operated by monks in <st1:place st="on">Central Asia</st1:place>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The term "Tudi Gong" is most frequently translated as "the Earth God". However, the shortcoming of the translation is that it might lead people to mistake "Tudi Gong" for the counterpart of "Dimu", "the Earth Mother" (see also Chapter Six). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ahern (1973:67) reports that a couple who often hiked in the mountains near a small town in Taipei County claimed that an old man with a long, white beard had emerged out of a torrential rainstorm and had led them to safety in the temple of the Land God, thereafter immediately disappearing. They identified the mysterious man as the manifestation of the Land God. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Burkhardt (<st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958c</st1:chmetcnv>:15), notes that in <st1:place st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> the Land God wears a red waistcoat and blue official robes. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Schipper (1977:660) also says that the image of the God in a historical <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> city is always seated, since in the urban area he does not need to walk a lot. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Schipper (1977:660) says that the Land God wears a "dragon robe". However, I have not found any depiction like this, it seems unlikely, which is not surprising because only an emperor could wear this. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Interestingly, since modernization, the Land God seems to be less territorially bound. In Taipei though he is still district guardian to an extent, today one finds its statues carried in pilgrimage all over the island when the people associated with such a Land God temple decide to organise a pilgrimage (Jordan 1994:153). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, such a territorially bound deity is regarded unsuitable for adopting children since he is powerless outside of the small territory. We shall discuss the topic in Chapter Six. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The red table is divided into two zones. One of these, the area at the left, where the ancestral tablets are placed, is devoted to ancestral worship. All the rest of the altar is devoted to the worship of gods. Worship is private in these cases. Normally only family members worship at the altar and are unable to name the deities whose pictures are placed over the altar table. They identify them simply as deities (Shenming) (cf. Diamond 1969:100).<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In front of it is a lower table, square on top, and cubical in general appearance. This is called a "table of the eight immortals". It can be used to hold sacrificial food during sacrifices. The red table, on the other hand, is a far more sacred object, on which one does not carry out activities other than worship and does not normally store goods, and which one does not readily move about the room. When sacrifices take place outdoors for some reason, neighbors will sometimes carry their eight immortals tables outside to make temporary altars there (cf. <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Jordan</st1:place></st1:country-region> 1985:93). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In some cases, several important people will host the ceremony together. Above all, these people should be very auspicious, to bring fortune for the ceremony. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, he is less important in fishing villages. Diamond (1969:99) reports that there is no specific shrine for him such as are found in agricultural communities. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The worship of Emperor Shennong is widespread in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. For instance, in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>, there are six temples dedicated to him, one was initiated by government in 1812 and the others sponsored by common people. We shall discuss the topic in Chapter Eight. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The ritual is intended specifically to benefit the person who has just died, though ancestors who died earlier and have not yet received a rite like this may also benefit (Ahern 1973:222). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The term "earth-god" is Ahern's translation of "Tho.-ti-kong" which I translate as "the Land God". <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.20)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The temple is located beside the Stone God Khe-te Hamlet (#S34; see figure 36). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.21)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">This is a Taiwanese saying (cf. Baity 1975:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="275" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">275f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.22)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The cooperation may sometimes give way to conflict. Please see Ahern (1973:71) for the discussion of the topic. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.23)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, many gods are associated with particular ethnic groups and are believed to act as patrons of their constituencies in the celestial bureaucracy. "Kai-chiang seng-ong" is a patron of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s Zhangzhou people. Gods with clear ethnic connections were usually found in communities dominated by a single ethnic faction but not now (cf. Wang Shih-ch'ing 1974:89; Sangren 1987:73). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.24)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The god is sometimes thought as a god connected with gambling. On inquiring why a statue of the Land God in Weihaiwei was accompanied by two female images, R.F. Johnston (1910: 374; qtd. in Wolf 1974:145) was informed that "the lady on his left (the place of honour) was his wife and the lady on his right his concubine." Two explanations were offered as to why the Land God of this particular place had been allowed to increase his household in this manner: one was that he had won the lady by gambling for her, the other was that the Land God of this place had appeared to one of the villagers in a dream and begged him to provide him with a concubine as he had grown tired of his wife.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Land God of a corner in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Peking</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> was reported that at a gambling match with the Land God of another Ward, he staked and lost his wife. It is also reported in <st1:place st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> that fortuitous contact with a Bo Gong (the name of the Land God of in Hakka) might lead to remarkable blessings. One villager tells the story of a man who saw a Bo Gong and then won first prize at the horse races (Berkovits and others 1969:76). See also Chapter Seven of this thesis. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.25)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Normally, when a new temple is built, a tree is planted beside it. I shall study the custom in Chapter Eight. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.26)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">DeGlopper (1974:47) observed that those who showed signs of possession were immediately replaced and left behind by the rest of their group. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.27)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Houtu originally always meant a male god (Fitzgerald 1961:36). The change of sex from a male to a female deity, Houtu Nainai, is thought to have been made in the early part of the Ming Dynasty. It is quite natural that Land, representing Yin (negative energy) and the productiveness of nature impregnated by the life-giving sunlight and rain from Heaven, or Yang (positive energy), should be worshipped as the Goddess-Mother. This shift took place quite late, however (Day 1974:59). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.28)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Another version of this story has it that the bones which would absorb her tears of mourning would be her husband's (Feuchtwang 1992:95). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.29)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ahern (1973:203), when inquiring why the Taiwanese must open the graves of their ancestors six or seven years after death to "pick up the bones" (khio-gut) and arrange them in a ceramic pot, was told by one old man a similar legend that a long time ago an emperor wanted to build a great wall around his kingdom. To provide a labour force, he conscripted thousands of young men. Conditions were so terrible for the workers that many men died and were buried under or within the wall. When one young worker had not returned home for some time, his wife set out to find him. When she learned that he was dead, she cried until the entire wall fell down. Then in order to find her husband's bones, she bit off her finger tip and let the blood flow onto the ground. Whenever the blood hit one of her husband's bones, that bone came up and joined together with the others until the skeleton was complete. People told her to carry the skeleton in her arms so that her tears would fall on it, making veins of blood on the bones, and resulting perhaps in a return to life. Just then, the wife of the Land God offered different advice. She said it would be better if the woman were to carry the skeleton on her back. But as soon as the wife did this, for she readily accepted the advice of a goddess, the skeleton fell apart. The wife of the Land God gave this bad advice because she was feeling evil-hearted and thought that there were enough people in the world already. After the bones fell apart, the woman put them in a pot and buried them, marking the place with a stone. Thereafter, people continued doing this. Today, our picking up of the bones is equivalent to the wife's using her bleeding finger to find her husband's bones. We pick up the bones in order to let the dead live again. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.30)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The term and notion "semantic chain" is created by Duara 1988:778- 795) to explain the historical development of the myths and symbols of Guandi (Guan'gong). However, when I use the term in this thesis, I do not necessarily mean the traits and functions of the Land God have developed historically, since they are not derived from a definable original text (cf. Katz 1990:217). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.31)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, in the next chapter we will find that different versions of legends portraying the God also have common features and these versions can be linked by a semantic chain. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-84644096865627693112008-02-11T02:41:00.000-08:002008-02-17T02:43:28.436-08:00Chapter Four: Festival Dates of the Three Deities<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I. Introduction: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There is, in Chinese popular religion, no organisation of theologians to debate the details of religious questions, nor is there any apologetics to defend its dogma (Jordan 1985:63; Cohen 1987:290). Elaborate codification of beliefs is not of great importance for the common believers. Therefore, even though there are many inconsistencies in religious belief, in practice they are of little consequence. What is vital is that rites are carried out sincerely, at the proper time and in the proper manner. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The proper time to hold a ceremony to worship deities can be distinguished according to two types of rites; one is occasional rites and another type regular rites. On occasional rites, the local deities are invoked with offerings in difficult cases of childbirth, in times of pestilence, drought and other calamities; or at the time of graduation, promotion or making big money etc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Regular rites can be subdivided into life-cycle rites and calendrical rites. The former are associated with life-cycle events such as the ceremonies held at a birth, on a girl or boy's sixteenth birthday, upon marriage, and at death. Special rites are held in the local temple and/or household altar for these occasions. The latter are based upon the Chinese lunar calendar for the rituals of formal religious festivals: the Lunar New Year festival, the Grave Sweeping day (on this day, ancestors are remembered by visits to their graves), Dragon Festival, Ghost Month, the annual birthday festivals of deities, the Moon Festival etc. (cf. Wu Lien-chin 1987:115). The dates of these calendrical rites are clearly recorded in the Almanac circulated in Chinese societies. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Actually, the annual birthday festival (shengri jidian) is a suitable time to approach a deity (cf. Wang Mingming 1995:56). It is the time to clean the environment of the temple thoroughly, to decorate inside and outside, to refurbish the altar elaborately, and to give the deity's statue new clothes or a new headdress (cf. Yang 1961:98; Cohen 1987:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="292" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">292f</st1:chmetcnv>). The deity's images in the offspring temples are carried back to the parent temple during the festival and temporarily installed on the altar to join the festival. It is also a good occasion for community celebration and feasting. The inhabitants of the temple neighbourhood, through the solicitation of local leaders, are urged to sponsor operatic performances and the birthday parade of the deity. Families invite guests (e.g. friends and relatives from other areas) to attend operatic performances and the deity parade, and most importantly, a banquet feast. Through the festival the community maintained among themselves a sense of belonging (Granet 1975:50). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I have checked many different editions of the Almanac, the dates of annual birthday festivals for the Stone and Tree Gods were not ever written in them. Under such circumstances, how do the believers of these deities identify the date to hold the birthday festival? It is the main purpose of this chapter to study how the deities are identified with the dates of birthday festivals and why some of them do not have any birthdays attached. Then, I argue that under the pressure of anthropomorphism, people make every effort to anthropomorphise these deities in order to stress that they were originally deified human beings. Finally, I assert that since the Land God has long been standardised, those natural objects which are identified with the Land God have similar legends and unified dates for birthday festival. Because the other stones and trees are not standardised, their legends, the dates of birthday and the form of images vary. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">II. How Their Birthdays Are Identified: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">First of all, let us fathom how the dates of birthday festivals of these natural objects are identified. I delineate seven methods by which people identify the dates.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, they identify the dates with those of the Land God:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, people may worship the Land God on their family altar everyday. Nevertheless, most Taiwanese, especially Hollo people, believe that both the second day of the second lunar month and the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month are the birthdays of the Land God (Tho-ti-kong Sen) and hold a festival on both days for him (Sangren 1987:62; Feuchtwang 1992:92). Thus, the sites of most stones and trees representing the Land God hold birthday festivals on the second day of the second lunar month and/or on the fifteenth or sixteenth day of the eighth lunar month. (note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are some exceptions. Both the birthday festivals of the tree Land God of In-suan Street (#T11; see figure 76) and the tree Land God of the East Gate of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Bi-liong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T12; see figure 77), a Hakka-speaking village, are held on the second day of the second month and the second day of the eighth month. It is slightly unusual to hold festivals on these days in Hollo communities. However, according to certain field reports from China, those of Hubei (Chamberlayne 1966:179) and Jiangxi Province are on the same day as those of Hakka in Taiwan (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:38).(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, the dates are decided in the course of negotiations with deities themselves through the mediation of religious specialists:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The main festival of the Literate and Militant Emperor of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Po.-ho</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S38; see figure 40) is celebrated on the sixteenth day of the eighth lunar month. At first I guessed that the reason for the date of the annual festival might be a result of the generally scheduled date near the 15th of the eighth month, one of the important dates for the birthday of both the Stone/Tree God and the Land God. However, I was wrong. This stone god was first found by the villagers about 60 years ago, but regarded as an evil spirit and kept at a distance. In 1984, the villagers started to venerate it at the command of a shaman (jitong). Moreover, in trance, the shaman also told villagers that the birthday of this god is on the sixteenth day of the eighth month. From then on, people hold festivals on that date. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The case of the main festival of the Emperor of Six Areas of Tan-suan Rural-town (#S10) is similar. Even though this cult was initiated around the 1870s, the date of the birthday was not fixed until as late as the 1900s when the current temple was inaugurated. When the building was completed, the god made an announcement through a shaman that his official title was "the Emperor of Six Areas" ("Liok-kah Then-te") and his birthday was on the ninth day of the sixth lunar month. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The main festival of the Tree God of Lam-huin Ward (#T37) is held on the twenty-eighth day of the seventh lunar month. I was told that about 100 years ago a tiny shrine was built under the tree for the worship of the Land God. But when it collapsed about 20 years ago, the local inhabitants built a new temple for the Land God on a spacious place nearby and left the tree alone. About five years ago, a religious specialist (xiansheng) told the villagers that the tree had been possessed by an immortal; therefore they started to worship it as the Tree God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, because the local inhabitants celebrate a five- day-long birthday festival for a god named Huat-chu Kong enshrined in a hall in front of the Tree from the twenty-third day to twenty-seventh of the seventh lunar month, after the recognition of the Tree God, they decided to celebrate his festival with an opera show on the twenty-eighth day of the seventh lunar month. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The birthday festival of the Tree God of Cheng-bik Ward (#T32; see figure 98) was also decided by the Tree God itself through a religious specialist. About fifteen years ago, a respected vegetarian advised the local inhabitants of the Ward that the tree had become godly and should be worshipped. Gradually, the local inhabitants found the tree was really divine, because he blessed the village very much. However, since the religious specialist did not tell them what god the tree was, people sometimes regarded it as the Tree God and sometimes as the Land God of this area. Therefore, they hold two birthday celebrations for the tree, one on the second day of the second month for the Land God and one the tenth day of the ninth lunar month for the Tree God. I asked them why the Tree God's festival was on the ninth month? They answered that: "Nobody knows the birthday of the Tree God, we just use the memorial date of the temple inauguration for the birthday festival of the Tree God and the temple inauguration day was decided by the God." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, they identify the dates with the same birthdays of some goddesses who are also guardians of children: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to my field work, some festivals of the Stone and Tree God are celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first lunar month, on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, on the fifteenth day of eighth lunar month, or at the end of each year.(note.3) Of course, there are many other religious dimensions to each of these dates. However, these specific dates are coincident with the festival dates of some Chinese goddesses who are also the guardians of children. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The fifteenth day of the first month was called Sion-goan or Goan-siao and is known in the English world as "the Lantern Festival". This day is also called "the Small New Year" (Xiao Guonian). For several days beforehand, lanterns are sold everywhere on the streets; then on the fourteenth day, lantern booths are set up in the temples, colourful lanterns are hung up and narcissus flowers arrayed for public viewing. On the night of the Lantern Festival, the streets are always crowded with people carrying lanterns while dragon and lion dances are performed, and musical troupes go from place to place adding to the extraordinary activity of the evening (see also, Wei & Coutanceau 1976:10).(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is also the birthday of the Bed Goddess (Chhng-bo Sen). At dusk, every family prepares sacrifices and worships gods, especially the Bed Goddess - a goddess who is said to watch over children - by giving offerings of glutinous rice mixed with hemp oil, wine and chicken; then paper money (on which there is a woodblock cut of clothes) is burned in order to give thanks to the Bed Goddess for protecting children (cf. Wei & Coutanceau 1976:68). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Also, in some places in China, the bed is believed to be protected by a pair of divinities, the Lord of the Bed, Chuangkong, and the Lady of the Bed, Chuangmu, to whom offerings are presented on the day of the Lantern Festival or on the last day of the year (Maspero 1981:118). Nonetheless, in some areas of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the birthday of the Bed Goddess is also celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, the fifteenth day of the first lunar month is also considered the birthday of the Near Water Goddess (Lim-sui Hu- jin). The cult is one of the three biggest cults in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Fujian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>. She is one of the water deities that predate Han Chinese settlement of the southern <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> (Watson 1985:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="298" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">298f</st1:chmetcnv>), and the cult of the Near Water Goddess has fascinated people in the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Fuzhou</st1:placename></st1:place> since the fourteenth century. The cult goes back to the Tang Dynasty. The base temple was constructed in 792 CE. in Gutian, at a place called "Linshui" (i.e. "Near Water"). According to certain sources, the Lady was born in 766 CE., which corresponds to the dates of the temple.(note.5) The story has been re-told in the numerous accounts between then and the twentieth century. Throughout the various accounts, the Near Water Goddess is referred to by many different names and official titles. Although the legend changes, there are certain constant features. For example, she always keeps the surname "Chen", but her personal name changes; later records tend to identify her as Jinggu (the pacifying maiden) or variations of this form. Other common details are the Song Dynasty bestowal of the title of Linshui Furen (literally, the Near Water Lady) and Shunyi (literally, in accord with virtue) and the location of her base temple in the vicinity of the town of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Gutian</st1:place></st1:city>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The cult spread in the 18th century throughout southern <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and is still very active. Many legends in these areas say that the Near Water Goddess once fought against a white serpent and tamed the demon. However, she died after having aborted her pregnancy when she performed a ritual for the rain to come and save the people from drought. Probably because of her tragic and heroic death, she has been revered as a divine protectress of women and children since.(note.6) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to the Chinese Almanac, the seventh day of the seventh lunar month is the birthday of "the Seven Star Goddess" (Chhit-niu-ma). The main task of the Goddess is to look after children, and there is a common belief that all children under the age of sixteen come under her protection. Once a baby has reached, or sometimes almost reached, its first birthday, its parents take it to a temple to worship the Seven Star Goddess in order to engage her protection. During worship, ancient coins, silver medallions, or lock medallions are hung on red ribbons and placed around the neck of the child as an amulet. If she is the child's protectress, at dusk of the seventh day of the seventh month of every year, offerings of soft cakes (a type of steamed dumpling with a hole pressed in the centre), are made at doorways to worship the Goddess. Upon reaching adulthood (age sixteen) the child must go to a temple on the birthday of the Seven Star Goddess and thank the Goddess for her protection over the last sixteen years by offering noodles, a rite called "taking off the amulet" (see also, Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="66" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">66f</st1:chmetcnv>). Besides, a rite called "Leaving the House of the Seven Star Goddess" is to be performed in addition to the "taking off the amulet" (see also, Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="66" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">66f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The fifteenth day of the eighth month is known by the English world as the "Moon Festival" and called "Tiong-chhiu-cheh (literally, the Mid-Autumn Festival)" by Taiwanese.(note.7) In addition, the Moon Festival, which always occurs on a full moon, is also set aside as the birthday of the Moon Goddess. As on many other festival days, everyone must worship their ancestors and the Land God on this occasion. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It is now the beginning of autumn, a season in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> of clear skies and mild weather after the hot, damp summer. This festival is usually blessed with blue skies and clement temperatures; so when night falls, a luminous, full moon shines in the star-filled sky - a wonderful sight after the prolonged haziness of summer. As a tribute to the Moon Goddess, families set up incense altars in their gardens, and on these small, round altars are set out a pair of red candles, four types of fruit, moon-cakes and lighted incense to worship the Moon Goddess (Pai geh-niu) (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:93). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, I do not find the Moon Goddess as a popular protectress of children. However, the report from Fuzhou by Hodous (1929:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="179" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">179f</st1:chmetcnv>) illustrates that in some places of China, the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month is also the date to worship the "mother", a goddess who protects children and the Seven Star Goddess. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">So far, it is clear that the birthday festival of the Bed Goddess can be on the fifteenth day of the first lunar month, on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month or at the end of each year. The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is also considered to be the birthday of the Near Water Goddess. The birthday festival of the Seven Star Goddess can be held on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month or on the fifteenth day of eighth lunar month. Moreover, the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month is also the festival of the "mother goddess". The main task of all these goddesses is to protect children. Therefore it is my hypothesis that the reason the devotees of these stones and trees hold festivals on the same days as these protective goddesses is that both of these two groups of deities share the same function, that is, to be guardian of children. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, they believe they are following the traditional dates of Stone and Tree Gods: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The birthday festival of the Stone God of Ka-ho Ward (#S36; see figure 38) is celebrated on the 19th of the first month. I asked why celebrations for the Stone God are held on this day, and they replied: "because the day is the 'genuine day (Chian- jit)' of the birthday of the Stone God." I think that the date for the birthday of the Stone God is really traditional and thus "genuine", since more than thirty years ago, the informants at the same locale told Liu Zhiwan (1961:162) that: "the Stone God's birthday is on the eighteenth or nineteenth day of the first lunar month." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nevertheless, the neighbours of the Temple of the Stone God of Sia-thau Rural-town (#S6; see figure 6) said to me that the birthday of the Stone God (of Sia-thau) is on the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh lunar month, even though they did not know why it was on that specific date. However, I think the reason it is on the twenty-fourth of the eleventh month is that they follow the traditional day for Chinese to worship certain natural objects such as the Stone God and the Tree God, on the Winter Solstice which falls on or around the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh lunar month (Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958c</st1:chmetcnv>:161; Eberhard 1970:21). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">5, the date is mixed up with that of the Land God:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At first, I guessed that the reason the believers of the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 79) just hold celebrations for the Tree God on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month is that it is on the same day as some goddesses who are the protectresses of children. But I was given an account that about 250 years ago, a group of kin crossed the Taiwan Straits from <st1:placename st="on">Fujian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype> to Tun-ho Ward of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chhau-tun</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place>. When they settled down, they used three stones to build a shrine for a statue of the Land God under the banyan tree. Later on, the stones and the statue were covered by the trunk and became invisible; people began to call the tree "the Tree God," and not the Land God. However, they still hold birthday celebrations for the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 79) on the fifteen day of the eighth lunar month, the date for the birthday festival of the Land God of the area whose statue is now in the trunk of the tree. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, the reason the birthday festival of the Tree God of Chheng-bek Ward (#T32; see figure 98) is celebrated on the second day of the second lunar month is that the Tree God is mixed up with the Land God. Therefore, it is probable that the birthday festivals of the Stone God of Tiong-guan Ward (#S19; see figure 19) and the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35) are on the second day of the second lunar month, and the birthday of the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54) is celebrated on the sixteenth day of the eighth lunar month all because they are mixed up with the Land God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">6, they identify the date with that of some specific deities other than the Land God, the Stone God, and the Tree God: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Some festivals are held on some specific days for some stone/tree deities because they are identified with some specific deities other than the Land God. For instance, Mr. Phuan Hong- guan and his fellow believers celebrate the birthday of the Grandfather of the Ancient <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">An-lam District</st1:placename></st1:place> (#S40; see figure 42) on the twenty-third day of the third lunar month. Asked why this day, they answered: "Because the <st1:placename st="on">Ancient</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> God is a part of the ancient <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city> of the goddess Ma-cho., it is also a part of the goddess Ma-cho.. We hold the celebration for him on the twenty-third day of the third lunar month, the same day as the birthday of the goddess Ma-cho.."(note.8) The stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48) is also the same. I questioned the custodian on what day they hold birthday festivals for the goddess. He answered that: "the stone goddess is the goddess Ma-cho., certainly, her birthday is on the twenty- third day of the third lunar month." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The believers hold celebrations for the phallic stone identified with the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam-teng Hamlet (#S49; see figure 52) on the sixteenth day of the second lunar month. They say that because: "the (phallic) stone is "Kai-chiang seng-ong (the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam-teng)" and the two (testes) stones are his bodyguards, we hold festivals for the god on the sixteenth day of the second lunar month, the standard birthday of the god "Kai-chiang seng-ong". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The main festival of the stone Turtle (#S56; see figure 61) located beside Ken-ki Road, the main road leading to Yilan County from Taipei, is celebrated on the seventh day of the sixth lunar month. The temple custodian told me that this is because a Chinese story book mentions that there was a stone turtle god and that the birthday of this stone turtle in the story was on the seventh day of the sixth month. The adherents of the stone Turtle (#S56; see figure 61) follow the idea and celebrate the birthday of the god on the specific day. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Autumn Maple God of Lam-kang District (#T33; see figure 99) is even more interesting. Neither the custodian nor the neighbours of the temple knows why they hold the main festival for him on the eighteenth day of the fifth lunar month. However, because the statue of the patron deity is moulded and dressed like "Sian-gong", the most popular and influential deity in this mountain area, I think that they might more or less have identified the Autumn Maple God with the influential god "Sian- gong" and follow the tradition to hold the festival the eighteenth day of the fifth lunar month, the same day as the birthday of the god "Sian-gong". According to the Almanac published and circulated by Muzha Xian'gongmiao, the most popular and influential <st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Xian'gong</st1:placename> cult in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, and to a hagiography cited by Katz (1993), Xian'gong was born on the fourteenth day of the fourth lunar month. The eighteenth day of the fifth lunar month is, according to the Almanac, the memorial day of deification (chengxian jinianri) of Xian'gong. However, people in Lam-kang District do not distinguish these two different dates and think the eighteenth day of the fifth lunar month is the birthday of Xian'gong. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In front of a big goddess temple in Sai-kang Rural-town, a tree is venerated as General Chu (#T29; see figure 95), the associate and guardian of the goddess. I was told that because the location of the tree is so close to the goddess temple, it must be General Chu who closely guards the goddess. Therefore the birthday festival of the tree god is held on the eleventh day of the sixth lunar month, the standard birthday of General Chu. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">7, they schedule the date of the same deity's festival date: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As above-mentioned, it is important in the popular religion that rites are carried out at the proper time; therefore, it is important that the birthday festivals are celebrated on the "genuine day". Nonetheless, in the observances, friends and relatives from neighbouring communities are invited to enjoy with deities the entertainment associated with the festival such as opera or puppet performance and to feast on the sacrifices, after the gods have consumed the essence of the offerings. If all temples of the same deity hold birthdays on the "genuine day (Chian-jit)' of the birthday of the God", people would have had fewer opportunities to entertain and to exchange feasts (cf, Sangren 1987:96). Additionally, if the birthday festivals of the same deity of the adjacent hamlets are held on the same day, then it would be more expensive to get food for the festival and to hire an opera troupe. Therefore, informants agree that, socially and economically, it is better that festivals should be scheduled on different dates in neighbouring parishes. However, some scheduling conflicts are unavoidable, since people feel that the birthday celebration ought to be held as near as possible to the "genuine day" (Lin Mei-rong 1987:69; Sangren 1987:97). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Having this idea in mind, we can understand why the birthday festival of the stone Land God of Tong-an Street (#S42; see figure 44) is held on the thirteenth of the eighth lunar month and the festival of the stone Land God of Tua-kham Village (#S51; see figure 55) is celebrated on the eighteenth of the eighth lunar month. It is because they are scheduled on different dates but near the fifteenth of the eighth month to avoid the "genuine day". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In spite of this, I was told by the devotees of the stone Land God of Tong-an Street (#S42; see figure 44) that though they hold celebrations on the scheduled date and not on the "genuine day" (the fifteenth of the eighth month), it is even better to celebrate before the "genuine day". Therefore they chose the thirteenth of the eighth month to hold celebrations, the date as near as possible to the "genuine day" and appreciated by the God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">III. Why Some Deities Have no Birthday: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, devotees of some places do not hold festivals for their deities. Among the 61 stone deities I studied, believers in 25 stone deities do not organise any birthday festival for their deities. Among the 39 tree deities studied, the believers of 16 tree deities do not hold any birthday festival for their deities. Why do these deities have no birthday? I attribute this fact to four reasons: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, because they are newly deified:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I do not mean that all newly deified deities have no birthday celebration. However, the examples I cite below are really such cases. According to the local inhabitants of Ho-peng Ward, the Stone God (#S15; see figure 15) and the stone Granny (#S16; see figure 16) of the Ward have been adorned with red ribbons for only the last ten years or so and have been worshipped only by lottery gamblers. So, no day is fixed for the festival in honour of these two deities. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The stone and the tree venerated in front of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Khe-te</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> are also newly deified. I was told that the stone was found only about 10 years ago by a farmer cultivating his rice field. About five years ago, some gamblers from outside the village came to deify it as the Stone God (#S34; see figure 36) and apotheosised the temple tree of the Land God as the Tree God (#T21; see figure 87). So far, there is no festival day for these two gods. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In addition, people hold no festival for the Tree God of Kim-bin Ward (#T6; see figure 71), the Tree God of To.-sian Ward (#T15; see figure 80), and the Tree God of Sin-hong Ward (#T17; see figure 82). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, because they have negative energy: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The name "Good Brothers" is a euphemism in Chinese popular religion for the ghosts. People usually collect the remains of unidentified and unworshipped dead found in the area and set a stone to represent them. The unidentified dead, like the living, need a place to live, food to eat, clothing to wear and money to spend. The well-being of the dead depends upon the living who worship them at some specific time such as the Ghost Month. The stone Good Brothers of Bah-tau Hamlet (#S22; see figure 23), the stone Good Brothers of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S26; see figure 28) and the Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62) are all for the worship of the "Good Brothers" and thus have no specific festival for them.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Besides, the Tree God of So.-o Urban-town (#T10; see figure 75) is located behind a martyr's shrine named "Chio-pai Kong (literally, the Stone Tablet God)", the Tree God of Chhau-lia Lane (#T25; see figure 91) is located beside a small Tai-chiong- ia (the enshrined posthumous bones, a kind of responsive deity) temple, and the Tree God of Lam-kian West Road (#T34; see figure 101) is worshipped along with some posthumous bones. Since they are so spooky, people would rather keep them at a distance, and do not like to hold birthday festival for these deities. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, because they are associate deities of other patron deities who adopt children:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Here I must make it clear that I do not mean that all Stone and/or Tree Deities worshipped as the associate deity beside the patron deity do not have birthday festivals. I only mean that because of this reason, many Stone and/or Tree Deities do not have their own festival. For example, the fact that the Stone Grandfather of Ka-seng Ward (#S3; see figure 3) does not have a festival is probably because he is only the associate deity of the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2), the patron deity of the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city>. People think that it is good enough to hold a festival for the patron deity and ignore the associate deity.(note.9) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, because they are too marginal to pay attention to: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Deities represented by stones and/or trees are usually only well-known within their own local area. However, some stone and tree deities are even so obscure that only a few adherents know their existence. Hence, it goes without saying that they do not have annual festivals. For instance, the location of the Divine Stone of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Giong-tek Boulevard</st1:address></st1:street> (#S41; see figure 43) is often covered by grass and many of the neighbours are not aware of his existence. A local inhabitant told me that most believers who initiated the cult have moved out of the area, nowadays only a few people came to worship it and certainly do not hold birthday festivals for him. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The case of the Stone God of Pak-tau District (#S47; see figure 50) is similar. He is located under a big temple named "Tin-an Kiong" dedicated to the Royal Lords (in Taiwanese, Ong- ia). Therefore, it is difficult to realise that there is a cult of the Stone God under the big temple. Due to the marginal location, he attracts only a few believers and consequently does not have an annual festival. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">One more example is the situation of the Tree God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Lo-chui</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T24; see figure 90). His existence is known only by a few people living nearby and is sometimes worshipped by them with incense sticks. Actually these incense sticks under the tree are the only visible evidence that the Autumn Maple tree is deified. Thus, it is unlikely that people would celebrate birthday festivals for him. Besides these, there are many more deities which are too marginal to attract enough believers to hold annual festivals for them.(note.10) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In brief, these four factors - that they are too junior, too marginal, too subordinate, and too spooky to gain enough devotees - all illustrate that these natural objects are minor and marginal. (note.11) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">IV. Anthropomorphism of the Land God:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Why, then, do the believers make every effort to identify these divine stones and trees with a birthday? Beside it is a suitable time to hold a annual festival, I attribute the main reason to the pressure of anthropomorphism. From ancient times, since Ancestor Worship dominated Chinese religion, many natural features (e.g. rivers, mountains, rain, wind, stars), animals (e.g. lions, centipedes, the 12 creatures of astrology), artificial objects (e.g. doors, stoves, walls, moats) have been more or less anthropomorphised in Chinese world and have been identified with former kings, the heroes of past legend or deified ancestors of the first settlers (Bonsall 1934:28; Fitzgerald 1961:37; Waley 1971:43; Wright 1977:39; Overmyer 1987:258). Since then, most deities are typically depicted in anthropomorphic form. (note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For instance, "Heaven" is often anthropomorphised as the Heavenly Emperor or the Jade Emperor (Cohen 1987:290). Similarly, the Stove God is depicted in human form, an anthropomorphic image of him is printed on paper and kept above the kitchen stove. He is sometimes said to be the Jade Emperor's nephew (Sangren 1987:162). Moreover, the bed is anthropomorphised as a couple of deities pictured sitting side by side, in official costume, with their tablets of rank in their hands (Maspero 1981:118). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In order to demonstrate that these deities are deified human beings, they are even offered the necessities of mundane life (cf. Dudbridge 1990:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="627" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">627f</st1:chmetcnv>). For instance, the City God, which was originally not a human deity, is worshipped in temples which include living quarters for his family as well as the hall in which they conduct their public business. Behind the main hall of the City God temple in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Shanghai</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> is a room for the god's father and mother and an apartment occupied by his wife and four daughters (Ayscough 1924:147; qtd. in Wolf 1974:145). Similar equipment dedicated to the City God can also be found in the Yilan City.(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As far as the Land God is concerned, if being worshipped with an image, he is usually depicted in pictures and in statues as a mild-faced, kind elders with a long white beard.(note.14) In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> he is often worshipped with his wife, the Land Goddess. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, he was sometimes even venerated with a concubine (Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:155; Chamberlayne 1966:170). In such cases, the deity statue of his wife should be set on the left hand side of the God where she may have a seat of honour and the statue of his concubine was smaller and was placed on the right hand side. Fried (1974:131) even found in a small shrine of south-east <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> that the God was worshipped along with a son. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, there are many legends portraying the Land God anthropomorphically.(note.15) Some of them are recorded in the popular story books and some are passed on orally. In the following section I shall select some well-translated legends at random for the discussion of this topic.(note.16) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A legend widespread in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> states that the Land God was originally a tax-collector by the name of Tiun hok-tek, who lived during the Zhou Dynasty. Even though in an unpopular post, he was extremely fair to the people, and both understood and sympathised with their difficulties. During his life he performed many deeds of kindness and charity. However, after his death, his post was succeeded by a man who taxed the people indiscriminately and unreasonably. Therefore, the people thought back to the administration of the good official Tiun Hok-tek, and so as to be able to perpetuate his memory forever, they built a temple and worshipped him as the god Hok-tek Cheng-sin (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:29) (For simplicity, I shall call the legend "Legend I" hereinafter). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A similar legend also sees the Land God as originally a kind tax collector of the Zhou Dynasty. Since he wanted everyone to be equally rich, he refused to take money from the poor. But his wife protested that if all people were rich, who would they hire to carry their daughter's wedding palanquin. Faced with this argument, he acquiesced. When he died his post was succeeded by an avaricious man, who squeezed every copper out of the peasants. Compared to him, he seemed like a god, so they began to worship him and a cult grew (Proksch 1984:38) (I shall call the legend "Legend II" hereinafter). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Another legend asserts that the name of the Land God is Tiun Beng-tek, who was a servant in an important official's menage of the Zhou Dynasty. His master, at the time, worked in a place far from home, and was missed very much by his youngest daughter. One day the young girl asked the servant to accompany her to visit her father. The servant carried her on his back to go to her father's faraway post. But on the way they encountered a fierce snow-storm during which the servant wrapped the little girl up warmly in the clothes off his own back; as a result, he froze to death. After his demise, the words "The God Hok-tek of Lam-Thian- mng" appeared in the sky. The master, because of his vast gratitude to the saviour of his young daughter, built a temple to him and worshipped him as a god (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="29" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">29f</st1:chmetcnv>). The other version of this legend referred to by Schipper (1977:661) maintains that from that time on he was deified as the Land God and as the Earth Governor (I shall call the legend "Legend III" hereinafter). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A fourth legend tells that, during his mortal life, the Land God was a faithful servant. One year, when there was great havoc caused by bandits in the neighbourhood, though an old man, he carried his master on his back to safety. At that time it was winter and bitterly cold, so he took off his clothes and gave them to his master to wear. He himself froze to death and as a result, the Jade Emperor (Giok-hong-sion-te) rewarded him by appointing him the Land God (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:29) (I shall call the legend "Legend IV" hereinafter).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A fifth legend says that the Land God was an elder who kept a general store. One day he found an egg which looked like a duck egg, and took home but which, when it hatched, produced a snake. The elder kept it and reared it. Unfortunately, whenever he was absent, the snake ate the chickens and the ducks of other people. Thereupon he turned the snake loose. But it grew and attacked people and cattle. The emperor heard of it and ordered the snake to be subdued. As no one else answered the emperor's call, the elder took the order himself and killed the snake. He was canonised as the Land God (Schipper 1977:661) (I shall call the legend "Legend V" hereinafter).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A sixth legend says that he was a candy merchant who lived a long time ago. One day he bought himself a tiny snake, took it home and cared for it. But the snake grew larger day by day, and its appetite grew with it, so that the candy left over from each day's business became insufficient to rear it. In the end, the candy merchant took his by now full-grown pet and released it in the mountains. As it happened, later on there were reports of a large snake which lived in the mountains, and which often came out of hiding to harm any person unlucky enough to be in the vicinity. Upon hearing this, the emperor ordered the snake be eradicated; but no one dared risk his life to carry out this imperial decree. The candy merchant, however, thought that because he had reared the snake, he would be able to approach and kill it without coming to any harm in the process - assuming, of course, that it was his erstwhile pet. Thereupon he sought an imperial audience, and asked that, if he should succeed in killing the snake, the emperor would cede the throne to him. The emperor gave his promise, whereupon the merchant made his preparations, and went out to the mountains and killed the snake. As previously agreed upon, he then became emperor. However, this was a position to which he was totally unsuited, and eventually he asked the former emperor to reoccupy his own throne, and make him a prince instead. Therefore, the real emperor gave his authority over all matters concerning the land in his realm, and after the former candy merchant's death, he was worshipped as a god (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:31) (I shall call the legend "Legend VI" hereinafter). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A seventh legend asserts that the Land God lived on the earth more than a hundred years ago, and was named Tongxiao. He was extremely fat, and at the time of his death had a head of silvery-white hair, and a magnificent beard - an appearance perpetuated in the statues of the Land God. During his mortal life, the Land God made a living by farming and fishing. Despite the fact that he gave to the poor and engaged in charitable works, his property never decreased; so it is said that his possessions were bequeathed to him from the heavens, and were an inexhaustible supply (I shall call the legend "Legend VII" hereinafter).(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From these legends, we vividly see, the Land God is not merely depicted in anthropomorphical forms such as appearance and behaviours, they even articulate his name, birthplace, life time, occupation, and his deeds leading to deification. We observe that Legend I describes that he was a tax-collector by the name of Tiun hok-tek, who lived during the Zhou dynasty and was extremely fair to the people. As a result, he was apotheosised as the god Hok-tek Chen-sin. In Legend II, he was said to be a kind tax- collector of the Zhou Dynasty. Since he wanted everyone to be equally rich, he refused to take money from the poor. He began to be worshipped after his death. Legend III says that his name was Tiun Beng-tek, who was a servant in an important official's menage of the Zhou Dynasty. He froze to death by wrapping the girl of his master up warmly in the clothes off his own back in a fierce snow-storm. Finally, he was worshipped as a god by his master out of gratitude. Legend IV narrates that the Land God was from a place called Thian-lam and was a faithful servant. He himself froze to death by taking off his clothes for his master to wear in a cold winter. As a result, the Jade Emperor rewarded him by appointing him as the Land God. Legend V relates that he was an elder who kept a general store. He took the order of the emperor and killed a harmful snake and was canonised as the Land God. Legend VI says that he was a candy merchant who lived a long time ago. He went out to the mountains and killed a dangerous snake and was worshipped as a god. Legend VII says that the Land God lived on the earth one hundred years ago and was named Tong Siau. He made a living by farming and fishing. He gave his possessions to the poor and engaged in charitable works and finally was regarded as a god. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">V. Anthropomorphism of the Stone/Tree God:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Not only the Land God has been anthropomorphised, the other natural objects have also undergone this process. The stones and trees which have been identified with specific deities such as the Granny, the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District, General Chu etc. of course have their own "biographies" and thus do not need to be anthropomorphised. However, the believers of some venerated natural objects such as the Stone God and the Tree God still endeavor to anthropomorphise their deities. For instance, both the devotees of the Stone God of Lai-o. District (#S43; see figure 45) and the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8; see figures 8 & 9) have proclaimed that their deities are "the Grandfather of Yellow Stone" ("Ui Jio Kong"), the mysterious teacher of a historical hero Zhang Liang.(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The adherents of the Tree God of Lam-kang District (#T33; see figures 99 & 100) attempt to identify the God with Xian'gong . They moulded and dressed the deity statue similar to Xian'gong and hold the birthday festival of the tree on the eighteenth day of the fifth lunar month, the same day with the birthday of the god Xian'gong. (note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In these cases, we can see, by identifying with historical figures, the natural objects got their names, life time, deeds and so forth. Moreover, we also realise that some deities are represented by temple images with human form, and so are anthropomorphicised. For example, in front of the stone representing the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7; see figure 7) is located a statue of a red faced, white eyebrowed, white bearded old man with a double-edged sword in his hand. The believers told me that the image was engraved according to the manifestation of the God in dream. The statue of the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9; see figure 10) is a old long-bearded red- faced general, riding a white horse with a big sabre in his hands. The image of the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54) is engraved like a literati general. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VI. Standardisation and the Land God:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">So far, we observe that the dates of the birthday festivals of almost all stones and trees representing the Land God hold birthday festivals on the second day of the second lunar month, on the second day of the eighth month and/or on the fifteenth day or sixteenth day of the eighth lunar month. Moreover, on closer examination of the different legends that portray the Land God, we find a common feature: an elderly local man devoted to his community. I attribute the reason the dates of birthday festivals are so unified and the different legends have so much in common to the result of the standardisation of the Land God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In his article "Standardising the Gods: The Promotion of Tianhou (Empress of Heaven) Along the South China Coast, 960- 1960", dealing with the promotion of "approved" deities by the local elites and state authorities (Watson 1985:293-323), Watson says that the local elites, defined here as literate men with interests in land and commerce, were eager to cooperate with state authorities in the standardisation of cults. Assisting in the construction of an approved temple was one of the many ways that an educated gentleman could "gentrify" himself and his home community. The essay is particularly interesting because the Heavenly Empress was originally a minor deity that emerged on the coast of <st1:place st="on">Fujian Province</st1:place> during the tenth century. For a number of reasons, the state found it expedient to adopt her as a symbol of coastal pacification in the twelfth century and, by virtue of imperial sponsorship and the endeavours of the local elites, she consequently became the leading goddess in <st1:place st="on">South China</st1:place>. Not surprisingly, the elevation of the Heavenly Empress and her cult are paralleled by the gradual rise of state authority over <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s southern coastal region (Watson 1985:294).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The strategy of the imperial state authorities and the literate local elites to standardise the "approved" deities was that, when they found a deity expedient, the state first conferred on him/her an honorific title. Then the deity and his/her temple would be listed by the elites in the gazetteer and official documents that circulated at the national level to confirm the recognition and to ensure that religious cults conformed to nationally accepted models. As a result, the literate local elites who related more easily to these written accounts would think they had succeeded in their efforts to introduce a standard form of religion. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Watson noticed that since the elite written accounts reached downward and local oral tales penetrated upward (cf. Bell 1989:49-50), the state both led the masses and responded to popular pressure; it both promoted and co-opted deities (Watson 1985:323). In order to allow sufficient flexibility for people at all levels of society to claim the deity (e.g. the Heavenly Empress) as their own, the state and elites only imposed a "basic structure" of the cult (Watson 1985:297; cf. Bell 1989:49-50). Therefore, there are many lengthy versions of myth of the Heavenly Empress. Some of these are preserved in written records that have been standardised over the centuries. Others are passed on and transformed orally. The goddess, then, means different things to different people, depending on their position in the hierarchy of power. To the boat people, for instance, she promised mastery of the seas and protection from storms; to the landed elite she symbolized territorial control and social stability; to the late imperial authorities she represented the "civilizing" effects of approved culture (Watson 1985:294).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The myths in the standardised written records tend to ignore the fact that the woman who was to become the Heavenly Empress lived to be 27 and did not marry, deviating from the norm of her era and place. These records minimized the discrepancies of local colour and emphasize more universal (or national) values (cf. Bell 1989:49-50) and served as a medium to carry all the right messages that literate decision makers wished to convey about their communities: civilization, order, and loyalty to the state (Watson 1985:323). On the contrary, many of the oral versions contained strong hints that she had a special relationship with spinsters and other unmarried women. In some accounts, for instance, she refused to marry and became notable as a seer or medium (Watson 1985:297).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Although Watson's theory deals with the process of standardisation of the Goddess "Heavenly Empress" the imperial times, I believe that it is applicable to the case of the Land God who has been standardised in the Chinese Almanac (Chamberlayne 1966:179) and indirectly linked to the state cult for a long time (Duara 1988:786).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Among the 61 divine stones and 39 trees I have studied, none of them was sponsored or built by the imperial or Republican government. But the fact is that almost all stones and trees representing the Land God have unified dates for his birthday festivals and similar legends. Has the God, like the case of the Heavenly Empress, been standardised? If the answer is positive, what is the "standardised written accounts" and who are the elites?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the past, the promulgation of the Almanac was the privilege of the imperial government. Nowadays in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> there are many different editions of the Almanac sponsored and circulated by local gentries, politicians, entrepreneurs, members of temple administration committees, and others, that is, local leaders. I asked some publishing companies how they edited these editions of the Almanac. They answered me that these were not edited by themselves but by some prestigious "religious specialists (Xiansheng)". Therefore, I interviewed these "specialists" how they did so. Some just told me that they would rather not tell me since they promised those who taught them how to edit the Almanac to keep esoteric. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, some enthusiastic specialists did tell me how the different ones were edited. One told me that he just compiled different editions of the Almanac, which were passed down from his teacher, into the current one. One told me that he edited the current one based on a classic Almanac passed down from his teacher and he added some new information to it. One told me that he consulted with some editions of the Almanac circulated in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and edited them to become the new one. I asked them on what principle did they base their dicision when they added new deities' birthday festival dates into the new editions of the Almanac. They all answered me that because the Almanac was updated for the general public and the publications were sponsored by local leaders (difang touren), they added new dates only of deities who were very popular (e.g. the Royal Lords) in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">If we apply Watson's theory to the analysis of the Land God's birthday festivals dates, we find that, although the Land God was not an imperial cult, it has been more or less standardised like that of the goddess Heavenly Empress. Additionally, the mechanism of standardisation is also similar. We find that the "standardised written accounts" of the birthday festival dates is the Chinese Almanac. The "elites" who standardise the dates of the Land God are the religious specialists who edit the different editions of the Almanac and the local leaders who promulgate them. However, because local leaders are sponsors, they are "decision makers". Since the Land God has been widespread for thousands years, the different editions of the Almanac would not ignore his existence, no matter how newly they are edited. That is, the popularity of his cult keeps his status stable in the Almanac.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">On examination of the different legends that portray the Land God, we find that they are also standardised to some extent. According to the theory of Watson, the homogenised myths in the standardised written records tend to ignore things deviating from the social norm and to emphasize more universal values. These standardised myths served as a medium to carry all the right messages that the elites wished to convey about their communities. This theory helps to illustrate why the different legends that portray the Land God consist of a common feature: an loyal, elderly man. The common feature is the so-called "basic structure" in Watson's terms. It also helps to explain why the legends and functions of the God described in the last chapter always depicted him as a "keeper" rather than a "challenger" of community. In brief, the Cult of the Land God is, to some extent, standardised and serves as a carrier of messages that the state and local elites wished to convey. Nevertheless, we notice that some of the legends narrated both in the last and this chapters consist of some miraculous deeds of the Land God; I hypothesise that it is because they are orally propagated at local levels.(note.20) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, if we learn from the experience of Watson's analysis of state and elites' strategies to control local cultures, we realise that the process of anthropomorphisation could not have occurred without state intervention. By anthropomorphising these divine animals and natural objects, they can be arranged in a bureaucratic structure under the emperor. As a result, they can be promoted or demoted according to ethics or morality, that is, conformed to nationally accepted models. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VII. Variety of Local Cultures:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, as mentioned above, the birthday festival dates of the Land God standardised in the Almanac are both on the second day of the second month and the sixteenth day of the twelfth month. But in Taiwan and in some places of China, Hollo people celebrate the birthday festivals of the Land God on the second day of the second lunar month and the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month. Similarly, Hakka people hold the God's festivals on the second day of the second month and the second day of the eighth month. Namely, people follow only one date (the second day of the second month) and ignore the other date (the sixteenth day of the twelfth month) standardised in the Almanac. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I asked an informant why it is so? He answered that a god can only have one birthday and thus only an annual birthday festival. The second day of the second month is the birthday of the Land God and the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month is not his birthday, but is "the memorial day of his deification (chengxian jinianri)". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to the report of Schipper (1977:772), some people in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Tainan</st1:place></st1:city> believe that the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month is the birthday of the wife of the Land God. The celebration on this day is for his wife, not for the Land God himself. Chamberlayne (1966:181), based on his field work in China, reports that people think that the birthday of the Land God's wife is on the fifteenth day of the fourth month. In addition, he argues (1966:179) that the official Almanac has standardized one date for the Land God's birthday, that is, the second day of the second month. The reason that in some places the God has one more birthday is because this one is according to their ancient local custom.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Although Chamberlayne does not point out what the "ancient custom" is, I assume that it is the "She" Cult. As I shall recount in Chapter Eight, the Land God was in some places identified with the "She" and called "Sheshen", "Shegong", or "She". In imperial times, there were two state ceremonies for the "She", the one in spring being the first ploughing rite, and the other one in autumn being the harvest rite (Hodous 1929:60; Ling Shun-sheng 1958:49). According to Hodous' observance (1929:179- 80) in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Fuzhou</st1:place></st1:city>, the harvest festival was celebrated from the eleventh to the fifteen day of the eighth lunar month. Therefore, it is clear that when people hold birthday festivals of the Land God on the eighth month, it is the influence of the autumn rite of the "She", not the standardised date in the Almanac. (note.21)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nevertheless, unlike the Land God, the Stone and the Tree Gods are not standardised. As mentioned, I have checked many different editions of the Chinese Almanac for dates of their annual birthday festivals, but none of them are written in them. The reason might be that these two gods are not popular enough to attract the attention of those who sponsor and edit the Almanac. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">If the "written accounts" and the elites that standardise the cults of these two deities are absent, how can common people identify the festival dates of their deities? From the previous sections, we observe that, without the mechanism of standardisation, common people can still identify the dates by numerous ways, by the instructions of shamans, of religious specialists and others. Even without these specialists, they can identify the dates with the same birthdays of some goddesses who are also guardians of children; they can believe they are following the traditional dates of the birthdays of the Stone and Tree Gods; they can use the temple inauguration dates as birthday festival dates (e.g. #T32); or they can decide which dates are convenient for them to hold festivals (e.g. #T37). Since there are numerous ways, the dates for birthday festivals vary widely. Nonetheless, by carefully analysing these dates, we find that the "birthday festival dates (shengri jidian)" are not necessarily on birthday dates. Strictly speaking, they are only "festival dates (jidianri)". In short, on closer examination of the festival dates of these divine stones and trees, we realise that the study of the common people's mechanism to identify the festival dates is beyond Watson's standardisation theory that is applicable to the religious cultures dominated by the elites. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the stone Land God of Sin-hong Ward (#S29; see figure 31), the stone Land God of Phek-chiu Ward (#S32; see figure 34), the stone Land God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tua-un</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S13; see figure 13), the stone Land God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S54; see figure 59), the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65) and the stone Land God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Pei-go</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S12; see figure 12). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Still, the birthday festival of the stone Land God of Chui-bue-a Hamlet (#S30; see figure 32) is held at the end of the year. This date is not unusual in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> (Suenari 1985:37), especially for some tiny shrines which do not hold elaborate festivals. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Grandfather of Yellow Stone of Lai-o. District (#S43; see figure 45), the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5; see figure 5), the Stone God of Hi-ti Rural-town (#S37; see figure 39), the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7; see figure 7), the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9; see figure 10), the Stone God of Jin-ho Village (#S11; see figure 11), the Stone God of Kang-khau Ward (#S14; see figure 14), the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8; see figures 8 & 9), the stone Land God of Pei-go Village (#S12; see figure 12), the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57), the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63), the Stone God of Tang-si Town (#S59), the Stone God of Hong-guan City (#S60; see figure 64), the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#BL1), the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2), the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60), the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Tree God of Cho.-su Lane (#T22; see figure 88), the Tree God of Uan-chip Road (#T23; see figure 89), the Tree God of Chap-ji Field (#T28; see figure 94), the Tree God of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73), the Tree God of Thau-hun Village (#T4; see figure 69), the Tree God of Siong-tek Village (#T5; see figure 70), the Tree God of Tiong- san Ward (#T9; see figure 74), and the Tree King of Tai-li Rural- town (#T39; see figure 105). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">On the night of the fifteenth day of the first month, the activity called "Lang Tho-ti-kong (literally, playing with the Land God)" begin. This is to place an deity statue of the Land God inside a sedan chair, then have it carried by strong men to the doors of business concerns, where they sway the sedan chair to and fro. The businessmen must set off firecrackers in welcome and thanks, because by coming to their place of business the Land God will bring them his protection (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="11" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">11f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, according to other legendary sources, she was born in 904, which is a way to associate her "living" with the history of the Ming Dynasty, to which the cult has close connections (Baptandier-Berthier 1993:3). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For details of the Goddess, see Baptandier-Berthier (1993) and Lo (1993). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As I have discussed above, many believers also regard the date as the birthday of the Land God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For unity's sake, I shall follow McFarlane (1984:84) and translate the name of the goddess Ma-cho. into "the Granny" hereinafter. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, because the Stone God of Tek-san Town (#S17; see figure 17) is an associate god in the Temple of the Land God of Tik-san Town, the Stone God of Ka-lo Ward (#S18; see figure 18) is the associate god of the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20) is the associate god of the Land God of Ang-hia-chhu, the Stone God of Sin-hong Ward (#S27; see figure 29) is an associate god of the Land God of Tua-khut, the White Crane Immortal of Chhim-khen Rural- town (#S46; see figure 48) is an associate god of the stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48), the Tree God of Uan-lim Town (#T1; see figure 66) is an associate god of the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5; see figure 5), the Pine King of Chong- ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67) is an associate god in front of the Temple of the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District, the Banyan God of Sion-lim Ward (#T18; see figure 83) is an associate deity of the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35), the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104) is an associate god of the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63), the Tree God of Gue-bai Hamlet (#T20; see figure 86) is an associate god of Liong-tek Temple, people do not hold annual festivals for these deities. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20), the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22), the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25), the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26), the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27), the stone Land God of E-huan Field (#S28; see figure 30), the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33), the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37), the stone Land God of Chhien-kah Ward (#S39; see figure 41), the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58), the Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62), the Beech Grandfather of Pak-si Ward (#T16; see figure 81), the tree Land God of Pak-li Rural-town (#T35; see figure 102), the Elderly Tree of Pak-li Rural-town (#T36; see figure 103). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, due to the lack of historical records, so far I am not able to figure out the reason why there is no festival for the Tree God of Po-san Ward (#T31; see figure 97). Moreover, I have not figured out why the birthday festival of the Stone Goddess of Lek- biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4), the Tree God and Goddess of Kui-sin Village (#T7; see figure 72), and the Banyan Tree Goddess of Thong- liang Village (#T27; see figure 93) are celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month, the same date of the Dragon Boat Festival. I also do not understand why the birthday festival of the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68) is held on the 20th of the first month. Moreover, I do not know why the birthday festivals of the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 84) is celebrated on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth lunar month; the Stone God of Pe-hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47) is celebrated on the ninth day of the eighth lunar month; the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92) is celebrated on the twenty- third day of the eighth lunar month; the Wind-moving Stone of Bak- sa District (#S48; see figure 51) is celebrated on the eighteenth day of the tenth lunar month; the Tree King of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T30; see figure 96) is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month. All these questions need further studies. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I say "more or less anthropomorphised" because they may also appear as non-human images. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Beside these, anthropomorphism is entailed in all prayers, divinations, sacrifice and others. For details, please see Chapter Seven. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the God's images in picture or statues, please see last chapter for details. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Maspero (1981:6) asserts that the Land God was barely personalised and even permanent gods had no legend. However, the results of my field research differ from him. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As I shall analyse step by step in the rest of this thesis, these legends do not only serve for the studies of the anthropomorphism and standardisation of the God, but also for the historicisation of him. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A variant of the preceding legend says that because he gave away all his possessions during his life, Tong Siau died a pauper (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="31" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">31f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The ancestors of Zhang Liang, the marquis of Liu, were men of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Han</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place>. His father, Zhang Ping, was prime minister to King Li. Twenty years after Zhang Ping's death <st1:placename st="on">Qin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">State</st1:placetype> destroyed the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Han</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Because of his youth, Zhang Liang never had an opportunity to serve as a minister of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Han</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place>. When the State was destroyed, Zhang Liang was left with a retinue of three hundred male servants.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Zhang Liang was once strolling idly along an embankment when an old man wearing a coarse gown appeared. Reaching the place where Zhang Liang was, he deliberately dropped his shoe down the embankment and, turning to Zhang Liang, said, "Fetch me my shoe, young man!"<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Zhang Liang, completely taken aback, was about to hit him, but because the man was old he swallowed his resentment and climbed down and got the shoe, "Put it on for me!" ordered the old man, and Zhang Liang, since he had already gone to the trouble of fetching it, knelt respectfully and prepared to put on the shoe. The old man held out his foot and, when the shoe was on, laughed and went on his way. Zhang Liang, more startled than ever, stood looking after him. When the old man had gone some distance, he turned and came back. "You could be taught, young man," he said. "Meet me here at dawn five days from now!" Zhang Liang, thinking this all every strange, knelt and replied, "I will do as you say."<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At dawn five days later he went to the place, but found the man already there. "When you have an appointment with an old man, how is it that you come late?" he asked angrily. "Go away, and meet me at dawn five days from now, only come earlier!" Five days later Chang Liang got up at the crow of cock and went to the place, but once more the old man had gotten there before him. "Why are you late again?" the old man asked in anger. "Go away, and five days from now come earlier!"<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Five days later Zhang Liang went to the place before half the night was through. After a while the old man came along. "This is the way it should be!" he said. Then, producing a book, he said, "If you read this you may become the teacher of Kings. Ten years from now your fortune will rise. Thirteen years from now you will see me again. A yellow stone at the foot of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Mount</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Kucheng</st1:placename></st1:place> in northern Qi -- that will be I." Without another word he left and Zhang Liang never saw him again.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">When dawn came Zhang Liang examined the book which the old man had given him and found it to be The Grand Duke's Art of War. He set great store by it and was to be found constantly poring over it.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Zhang Liang, of course, became a well-known hero in Chinese history. As a result, his teacher, the Yellow Stone, became famous as well (Watson 1961:135). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The name of Xian'gong is Lyu Dongbin and the title of him is Fuyu Dijun (the Trusted and Helpful Imperial Lord) (Thompson 1988:76). However, he is simply called Xianzhu (the Immortal Patriarch) or Xian'gong (the Immortal Grandfather) in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Xian'gong is one of the Eight Immortal Ones, but probably because of his descending via the writing stick called the "fabulous phoenix" (luan) to communicate with believers (cf. Thompson 1988:76) and via dream divination, he is the only one of the group who enjoys religious popularity in Taiwan, especially in South Taipei area (Feuchtwang 1992:193). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.20)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the study of the different attitudes toward miracles between the elites and common people, please see Chapter Five. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.21)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, the "She" was also a state standardised cult. I shall discuss it in detail in Chapter Eight. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-34199138004499129542008-02-10T02:47:00.000-08:002008-02-17T02:51:33.560-08:00Chapter Five: The Deification of Stones and Tree<span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I. Introduction</span></b>:</span><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The worship of stones and trees is a world-wide phenomenon. However, interpretation is made difficult by the fact that many sacred stones and trees come to us from religions and cultures for which there is little or no literary data. Under such circumstances, it is understandable that researchers on religions have applied many different theories to such worship, speaking of ancestor cults, nature worship, fetishism, non-iconic (non- figurative) cults, animism, and dynamism (cf. Edsman 1987:50). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the secular point of view, a sacred stone/tree remains a stone/tree; apparently, nothing distinguishes it from all other stones/trees. Nevertheless, if the stones/trees are the dwelling places of the souls of ancestors (India, Indonesia), were once the scene of a theophany (as the bethel that served Jacob for a bed), have been consecrated by a sacrifice or an oath, are impregnated with a magical or religious power by virtue of its symbolic shape or its origin, represent or imitate something divine, or came from somewhere in sacred time, they become sacred (cf. Eliade 1958:216; 1989:4). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The initial formation of Chinese popular cults is not a subject of great interest or discussion among scholars (DeGlopper 1974:55). When describing the origin of deification, they only tautologically say that these deities are apotheosised because of increasing recognition of their efficacy (e.g. Feng 1970:20; Harrell 1974:204; Baity 1977:76; Tsai Wen-hui 1979:28).(note.1) Nonetheless, some scholars do delineate the reasons certain cults have started. They are deities favoured by a particular household on its domestic altar; the inspirer of a spirit medium; the ghosts or their guardian in a shrine to the forgotten dead; an off-shoot of a famous temple in the original home of a new settler; the guardian of a trade which has started in the area; the chosen deity of a local defence association; inspiration of a spirit-writing association or a dream etc. (Overmyer 1987:281; Feuchtwang 1992:62).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, the deification of stones and trees is somewhat different from and more complicated than the general delineation above. Based on my field interviews, I shall illustrate that some of these natural objects are themselves regarded as deities and others as possessed by certain supernatural beings. Then, I argue that since the forms of "hierophanies" vary from one culture to another, the term is too general to thoroughly explain why Chinese, for instance, prefer worshipping stones with forms such as the crane, turtle or humankind. I shall assert that in order to understand why some forms are treated as containing intrinsic mystery, while others are not, it is vital to understand the significance of them in their own culture. Finally, I suggest that the deification legends derived from my field work are not only able to help us understand the initial formation of Chinese popular cults, but also help us study the world-wide phenomenon of stone/tree worship.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">II. How the Stone Deities were Deified:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, Performing miracles:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are several reasons that make people deify stones and trees in Chinese society. Performing miracles by these objects is one. Among the 61 sacred stones I have studied, 11 were deified because they originally performed miracles. I will introduce these deities as follows:(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Uan-lim</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place>, a stone is venerated and named "the Stone Buddha (#S5; see figure 5)". A legend says that more than a hundred years ago, a boy drowned in the canal called Pak-po Chun (literally, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Eight-stronghold</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Canal</st1:placetype></st1:place>). The souls of the child appeared at the area at night. In order to oppress the souls, the local inhabitants set a cylindrical stone at the site and started to worship it. The stone glittered at night after it was deified. Therefore the villagers built a shrine for the stone and named it "the Stone Buddha". Thus, the origin of the Stone Buddha seems a "Shi Gandang", the Evil-warding Stone depicted in Chapter Two. Another legend goes that the stone was set by the landlord of this area by the end of eighteenth century to be the protector of his lands. But there is at least one other version, told to me by some local people over a game of chess in the temple precinct. About two hundred years ago (the Khen-liong Era (1785-1798 CE.), the village was extremely unpropitious (bo-peng-an). One night the Stone God revealed himself to a villager in dream and said that if the village wanted be become harmonious again, he should dig <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="100" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">100 cm</st1:chmetcnv> beside a tree (now the Tree God </span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">n-lim Town (#T1); see figure 66) and would find the Stone God.(note.3) Therefore the man assembled some fellow villagers to do so and found the stone. Surprisingly, the stone sometimes glittered at night since it was unearthed. Therefore, they regarded the stone as the protecting god of the village and built a temple to worship it. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the mid-1800s, in front the big rock where the temple "Hiap-ho Bio" (literally, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Harmony</st1:placename></st1:place> and Peace) is presently located, there was a small plain where some cowherds often played and fed their oxen. Every time they came, they were impressed by a rock with marvelous size and colour different from its milieu under the hill. One day they decided to worship the rock with incense deliberately taken from each family. As they worshipped, a boy fell into a trance. They suddenly realised that the boy was possessed by the spirit of the rock. From that time on, the rock was deified as "the Stone General (#S8; see figures 8 & 9)" and has nominally adopted many children.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Pat-po</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> a stone is worshipped in a grand temple and named the Stone Divine Grandfather (Chio Seng Kong, #S9; see figure 10). I interviewed some local people, and they all told me that more than a hundred and fifty years ago, a stone of about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="100" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">100 cm</st1:chmetcnv> in height was found by a farmer in his rice field. He thought the stone would disturb his farming work and decided to remove it. As a result, he pushed the rock into a pond beside his field. But next day when he came to his field he found that the rock had come back automatically to his rice field again. He tried three times, but the rock came back to the field again and again. The farmer soon realised the rock was divine, so he and the local inhabitants began to enshrine it (see also, Yuan Chang- rue 1987:129).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Tin-an <st1:city st="on">Temple</st1:city>, the village temple for the God Sam-san Kok-ong (or the Kings of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Three</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place>), we can find a stone god called "the Emperor of Six Areas" ("Liok-kah Then-te", #S10). Around the 1870s, a cowherd named Li a-chau, and his playmates witnessed an unusual small stone, with the form of a normal deity statue, shining in the grass. They believed that the stone was divine and began to worship it with incense. One day the landlord found that the cowherds worshipped a stone on his land. He was annoyed and destroyed the humble altar. As soon as he did it, his abdomen ached terribly and he fell down on the ground. When his wife realised it was because of her husband's rude act, she promised that if the god forgive him, they would donate the land to build a temple for the stone. Of course her husband recovered after the prayer. As a result, villagers came to worship it too and venerated it as the Emperor of Six Areas.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">On the hall of the family altar of Mr. Phuan Hong-guan, a Chinese pharmacist, two stones are worshipped as (Ko Bio Kong, see figure 42). The pharmacist told me that in 1984 he was selected by "the Granny" to be an official for her annual celebration on the twenty third day of the third lunar month. According to the tradition, as an official of that kind, he must go to the old site of the goddess's temple to offer incense. After the rite he sincerely put the incense on the earth. On the earth he found two stones that he believed were the stones left by the original temple of the goddess and brought them home in memory of his honorable office. When he got home, he found he could not light incense to worship on the family altar. He felt strange and asked the goddess what the matter was. The goddess, through throwing moon blocks, told him that the two stones were divine and should be enshrined. Therefore he set them on the altar and worship them and named the two natural stones "the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Ancient</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> God".<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God of P?hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47) is located in a mountainside tea plantation and beside the small path leading to <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city> city centre. About 100 years ago, again and again when the tea farmers of the area shouldered their tea for sale in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taipei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>, they saw, from a distance, a large dog on the rock. But when they came close to the rock, the dog disappeared. They felt strange and regarded it as a miracle performed by the rock. Therefore they started to worship it to ask for prosperity in the tea business. The rock was very divine and responsive to their wishes. As a result, they built the temple to worship the rock.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Under a big temple named "Tin-an Kiong" (literally, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Palace</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Harmony</st1:placename></st1:place>) dedicated to the Royal Lords in Pak-tau District, there is a stone (#S47; see figure 50) for the worship of the Stone God. Because of the marginal location, even many of its neighbours do not realise that there is a cult of the Stone God here. An elderly man living in front of the temple told me that more than a hundred years ago, cowherds of the area liked to get together around the big stone. One day, in the seventh lunar month, they thought it might be fun to worship the stone of unusual size. When they brought incense and some offerings for the stone, a boy was suddenly possessed. The elders of the village regarded the possession a divine manifestation of the stone and started the cult. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Bak-sa District of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city> City, a big stone is worshipped as the Stone God. I was told that because when a gale blows, the stone can be dramatically moved by the gale. The local people believed that the phenomenon is a divine manifestation of the stone and thus deified it as the Wind-moving Stone (#S48; see figure 51).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tang-si</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S59) has been worshipped only for about fifteen years, since the lottery gambling "Dajiale" ("Everybody Happy") became popular.(note.4) I was told that a person of the town one day took pictures for entertainment on the hill. When the film was developed, he found a vague image of a god in the photo. He came back to the site where he took the picture and found the stone. As the news became widespread, the stone was since deified as the Stone God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tang-si</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God represented by five stones (#S36; see figure 38), in yellow official gowns, is worshipped in Ka-ho Ward. According to Liu Zhiwan (1961:160), in the earlier period of the Ka-kheng Era (1796-1821 CE.) of the Qing Dynasty, some children found several stones with human appearance, when they were playing in a pond called In-tam-a (literally, the Round Pond). They felt it strange and began to worship them for fun. Suddenly, one of the children was possessed by the spirit of the stones. Villagers were surprised by the miracle and initiated a small temple for the stones and named them Chio-thau-kong (the Stone God). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">About 60 years ago, a hamlet in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Po.-ho</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>, was called "Chio Lang-thau" (literally, stone head of human being). Some elders still remember that there was a stone on the side of a road in the village. A legend says that a driver of an oxen cart once urinated on the stone and, as a result, his cart broke down. He regarded the stone as an evil spirit and out of fear offered it some silver spirit money. Therefore, the villagers also regarded the stone as an evil spirit and kept it at a distance. Year after year, the stone was slowly pushed by rains into a stream beside where it had been located and villagers forgot the stone gradually. In 1984, a shaman of the Royal Lord of Ti, the patron deity of the biggest temple of the district, in trance found the stone again. He commanded the villagers to worship it, because he said that the stone had been deified as an deity. So villagers enshrined the stone and called the deity "Chio-lang Kong" (literally, Stone Man Grandfather) "Chio-thau Kong" (the Stone God) or the Literate and Militant Emperor of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Po.-ho</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S38; see figure 40).(note.5) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, With Special Location:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A big stone (#S43; see figure 45), located in Lai-o. District of Taipei City, is named "the Grandfather Yellow Stone (</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">-ch</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">-kong)". More than 50 years ago, a man came to the hill side to dig a coal shaft. The stone was located just beside the shaft. The man prayed to the stone that if the stone was divine please bless him to make money by mining coal. As a result, when he became rich, he enshrined the stone and worshipped it. Moreover, all coal miners for the shaft regarded the stone as their protector. Every time before they went down into the shaft, they made wishes to the god to bless them and keep them safe. When they got out from the shaft, they would bring offerings to the god for thanksgiving. Gradually, the stone became the local patron deity of the coal shaft and the village Chap-si-hun (literally, the Fourteen Shares).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God (#S52; see figures 56 & 57) of Pat-li Rural- town is famous in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>. The stone is not particularly huge but is the biggest and most distinguishing one of its surroundings. I think that it is because of its special location that the stone was deified.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Big stones located beside temples are susceptible to be deified. For example, next door to the Stone Goddess (#S2; see figure 2) <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city>, a stone (#S3; see figure 3) is worshipped and named "Chio-ia" (literally, Stone Grandfather). Originally there was only a stone deity called Chio-buo (the Stone Grandmother). When the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city> of the Stone Goddess was rebuilt in 1983, building workers found a stone looking like a man under the foundation of the old temple. People believed that the stone, since it is apparently similar to a human being and had been under the stone temple for a long time, should be divine. They decided to deify the stone and enlarge the new temple to set the Stone Grandfather and the original Stone Mother together as a couple. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Beside the Tree God (#T8) of Kang-khau Ward, a stone is venerated as the Stone God (#S14; see figure 14). The stone has been apotheosised for more than 100 years, but no adherent knows the history of its deification. I think that it is its special location that made the stone deified. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, With Unusual Origin:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">During the Japanese colonial period, there was a flood in the area of Lek-biau Ward of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Biau-liek</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>. As soon as the flood ceased, a human-shaped stone was found beside a river. The elders of the village regarded the stone as the manifestation of the Stone Goddess and worshipped it with incense. As a result, a temple was initiated for her (#S4; see figure 4) in 1911 and named "<st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Stone Goddess</st1:placename></st1:place> (Chio-buo-liun-liun Su)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Below the hill called Chi-san Giam of Su-Lim District, there is a temple dedicated to the Stone God (#S50; see figures 53 & 54). The stone is not the biggest one around the hill, but because it is big, and partly embraced by a big tree, it is the most distinguishable. Nobody knows why or by whom the stone was deified. But the neighbours of the temple are very sure that it was originally worshipped by the Plain Aborigines before Chinese immigrants came to this area to cultivate. The neighbours told me that the Plain Aborigines probably worshipped the stone as the Mountain Deity or something. Chinese immigrants just followed the custom of these Plain Aborigines to worship the stone as the Stone God.(note.6) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, With Unusual Appearance:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The most important factor that makes stones deified is unusual appearance. At least 32 stone deities were initiated for this reason. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God (#S34; see figure 36) located in front of Khe- te <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> is a typical case. An informant living in this location told me that about 10 years ago, when a farmer cultivated his rice field, he found a beautiful round stone and put it at the courtyard of the Temple, which was the only public place of the hamlet. About five years ago, one day when the informant came to worship the Land God of the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city>, he recognised that some incense sticks had been put beside the stone. He guessed that the stone was deified by gamblers from outside the village. Therefore the villagers started to worship the stone as the Stone God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A, With a Human Appearance:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Not far from the Stone God of </span></b><st1:placename st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">n-lim</span></b></st1:placename><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype> (#S5; see figure 5), a stone with the appearance of human being is worshipped in a temple "Thai-an Kiong" (the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Palace</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Peace</st1:placename></st1:place>). The Stone God (#S6; see figure 6) here is about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="200" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">200 cm</st1:chmetcnv> in height and resembling a human being; therefore people call it the Stone God. Even though the God has thousands of nominal children and the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city> is now the belief centre of six hamlets, the believers know only that it was built at least in 1883 CE. (according to the date engraved on a stone censer in the temple) and do not know the origin of it. I believe that it is because of the human appearance that the stone has been deified.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A stone of about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="30" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">30 cm</st1:chmetcnv> high is worshipped as the Land God in the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Pe-go Village. Some villagers told me that it is the Land God while many say that it is the Land Goddess. However, they only remember that the Land God with human appearance (#S12; see figure 12) has been worshipped for more than 100 years and do not know its origin.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There is a stone with human appearance enshrined with some deity statues in the Land God Temple of Tua-un Village as the Land God (#S13; see figure 13) of the hamlet. Mr. Lim, a resident of the hamlet told me that it is the stone that the ancestors of the villagers chose to represent the Land God when they came to cultivate the area more than 100 years.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A standing stone is worshipped in Ho-peng Ward as the stone Granny (#S16; see figure 16). Villagers told me that it is the goddess Mazu (the Granny), but some say that it is Guanyin. Anyway, it is a goddess because the appearance of the stone resembles a goddess. Like the Stone God beside her, it has been deified since approximately 10 years ago and is worshipped mostly by lottery gamblers.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">More than 100 years ago, a resident of <st1:placename st="on">Tek-san</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype> of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Lam-</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">tau</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> dug foundation for his new house and unearthed a stone with human appearance. Villagers considered the stone divine and deified as the Stone God (#S17; see figure 17) in Chi-lam Kiong (literally, <st1:placename st="on">Purple</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">South</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Palace</st1:placetype>), the most important <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In front of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tieng-ka-lo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>, a stone with human appearance is worshipped as the Stone God (#S18; see figure 18) in a hole in a tree that represents the Tree God (#T13; see figure 78). I was told that the Stone God was originally located in front of the Tree God more than a hundred years ago. When the courtyard of the <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> was enlarged, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stone</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> was knocked down and the Stone God was put in the hole of the tree. However, though they know that the Stone God has been apotheosised for more than 100 years, they do not know for what reason it was deified.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A stone, resembling a human being, set in a stone chamber shrine at a small hamlet called "E-kham-a" of Chhau-tun Town, has been apotheosised for more than 100 years (#S19; see figure 19). Even though it looked like a normal shrine dedicated to the Land God, I was told that it was the Stone God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Chhen-th?Lane, we can find a stone (#S21; see figures 21 & 22) with human appearance worshipped as the Land God in a stone chamber that is hardly ever seen in Taiwan. There is a saying that since the initiator of the rebuilding of the temple of the Land God has to be the god's inferior, nobody there wants to be in the low office. Therefore the temple is now still a stone shrine (Lin Mei-rong 1987:68). But when I came to visit the site in 1992, they told me that a new temple for the Land God is going to be built after the road has been widened so that the dolmen will have to be removed.(note.7) They also told me that when the new temple has been built, they plan to bury the dolmen under the temple because the dolmen is also divine.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Tua-khut of Sin-hong Ward, a stone is worshipped as the Stone God (#S27; see figure 29). Although no villager knows the origin of the Stone God, I suspect that the stone was originally the stone that represented the Land God of the hamlet. Later on, when the economic condition of the hamlet improved, villagers bought the wooden statue which represents the patron deity of the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city> and set the original stone aside. Nowadays, since the original worshippers of the stone Land God have died or moved out, younger residents have come to consider the stone as the Stone God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of Hok-bin Kiong (literally, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Happy</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">People</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Palace</st1:placetype></st1:place>) of E-huan Field (Lin Mei-rong 1987:75), a stone with human appearance is worshipped as the Land God (#S28; see figure 30) in temple. Different from other stone deities, the stone is clothed in a black robe. However, even though there is also no record for the origin of the deified stone, I guess its human appearance brought about its deification. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Chui-bue-a Land God Temple of Hu-liau Ward, a stone in a gown is put at the right of the altar as the Land God (#S30; see figure 32). The villagers told me that it is the Land God but did not know its origin. I think it is because it looked human and so was deified.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The statue of the patron deity of </span></b><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">-liau</span></b></st1:placename><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></span></b></st1:place><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> is a stone (#S31; see figure 33) with human appearance. The villagers do not know where the stone is from, nor do they ask him to adopt their unhealthy children. Nowadays, the stone deity has become a patron deity for gambling.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There is a stone (#S32; see figure 34) with human appearance deified in the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Khe-chiu, Phek-chiu Ward. I was told that the stone is the statue of the Land God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are three stones, each with human appearance, worshipped in a small shrine of Chhen-kah Ward and called the stone Land God (#S39; see figure 41). Some call them "the Land God" ("Tho.-ti Kong") and some call them the Stone God ("Chio- thau Kong"). I was told by a woman that: "because there was no <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> when they came to this area to reside, they chose some stones with human appearance to worship. These three stones are the stones they chose for the worship of the Land God and it is a mistake to call them 'the Stone God'." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The stone in a big <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> called Tiong-kheng-bio (literally, the <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Eternal Celebration</st1:placename>) located in Tong-an Street of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city> is also of interest. A black stone (#S42; see figure 44) with human appearance is enshrined in the centre of the altar of the Land God temple in front of the patron deity statue. A local leader told me that it was the original stone Land God (Chio-tho.-ti-kong) of the temple. He also told that their ancestors, the pioneers of this area, established a tiny shrine under the tree which is located behind the present temple and chose the cylindrical stone as the Land God for worship when they first came to the place.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The patron deity in a temple of Chhim-khen Rural-town in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taipei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> is a stone goddess. People told me that because their seniors found a stone looking like the goddess Granny (Ma- cho.), they regarded it as divine and enshrined it. Even though now a statue has been moulded for the worship and we can only find the stone from the back of the statue, it is still called the stone Granny (Ma-cho., #S45; see figure 48).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the temple of the Land God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tua-kham</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>, we can find a stone (#S51; see figure 55) with human appearance worshipped beside the statue of the patron deity. An elder told me that because the stone looked like the Land God, it was picked up by a villager and worshipped as the Land God of the hamlet.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Land God temple of Si-hun-a, a stone (#S54; see figure 59) is venerated as the Land God beside the statue of the patron deity. The person who was in charge of the temple told me that the stone Land God with the censer was brought by one of his ancestors from China. It was originally put under a big rock after his ancestors settled down in this area. A year ago, because a tunnel is going to be built through the rock, the stone Land God was moved to the site. He also told me that it was the Land God who decided the site for the present temple.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63) is a famous in this area. There are three stones each with human appearance worshipped in the temple. The biggest one wearing a gown is the statue of the patron deity, the other two stones are comparatively small. They told me that about two hundred years ago Mr. Lim, a farmer, found a human-shaped stone in his field. He regarded it as a manifestation of the Stone God and decided to deify it under the altar of his home. Later on the God told the farmer to build a shrine to let him be worshipped in public to bless more people.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Near the exit of the First Freeway to Hong-guan City, a stone with human appearance is enshrined as the Stone God (#S60; see figure 64). A legend says that about a hundred years ago, a local inhabitant called Mr. Lim </span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">g found the stone beside Dajiaxi (i.e. a big river). He regarded it as a god and enshrined it. The stone soon became a patron deity of children and even pregnant women like to worship in the temple to bless their unborn children. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Ji-si H</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> in Chhau-o. Hamlet, several stones each with human appearance are worshipped as the Land God (#S61; see figure 65). An elder told me that originally they moulded a statue of the Land God with earth. But the earth- made statue was so fragile that they had to find a stone of human appearance to replace the earth-made statue. When the area became prosperous a couple of years ago, they also bought a sculptured statue of the Land God and enshrined it in the temple with the stones.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, the stone representing the Stone Goddess of Lek- biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4), the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37) and the Stone Grandfather of Ka-seng Ward (#S3; see figure 3) are also stones with human appearance. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">B, With Auspicious Animal Appearance: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At the left side of the stone Granny temple (#S45), a stone is worshipped as a stone deity (#S46; see figure 48). The custodian of the goddess temple told me that originally people found a big stone with the appearance of a crane on the top of the mountain behind the location of the temple. They believed it divine and moved it down to look after and to worship it, and named it the White Crane Immortal (Bai He Xian). When the lottery game called "everybody happy" was flourishing in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, many gamblers came to worship it. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A stone looking like a couple of Turtles is enshrined in a tiny <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">temple of Ken-ki Road</st1:address></st1:street> of <st1:placename st="on">Sui-hong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype>, beside the main road leading to <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Gi-lan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>. People call it Chio-ku-kong and Ch</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">- ku-mo (literally, Grandfather and Grandmother of Stone Turtles). I was told that when the main road was widened about 60 years ago, about fifty workers tried but failed to remove the rock which was located on the planned road. After they used every effort and turned it upside down, they found the bottom of the rock looking really like a couple of turtles. Therefore, they realised that the rock was actually divine and decided to enshrine it as the stone Turtle (#S56; see figure 61).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At the end of Gien-kiu-in Rd, a big black stone (#S55; see figure 60) is deified as the Stone God. An elderly lady told me that the Stone God has been worshipped since at least when she was a child. Because the stone looked like a lion, it was deified.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">C, With Phallic Appearance:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Sion-lim Ward, a phallic stone about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="100" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">100 cm</st1:chmetcnv> in height is worshipped with two round stones each of <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="30" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">30 cm</st1:chmetcnv> diameter in a hole of a big tree. Even though the stones look like a phallus and two testes, the villagers regard them as the Stone God (#S33; see figure 35) and are not aware of the suggestive form of the stones as a sexual organ. Nevertheless, women who are pregnant like to worship him to bless their unborn children.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">On the top of a hill called "Chiam-teng" (literally, the Pointed Top) in Lai-o. District of Taipei City, we can find an upright stone of <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="70" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">70 cm</st1:chmetcnv> in height together with two round stones of <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="25" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">25 cm</st1:chmetcnv> in diameter worshipped at the back of a big temple dedicated to a popular god named "Khai-chiang seng-ong" (literally, the First Divine Patriarch of Zhangzhou Prefecture). The history of the temple says that more than 200 years ago, a group of Zhangzhou people who fled the forces of another sub- ethnic group took refuge on the top of the hill. One person of the group took his amulet of Kai-chiang seng-ong from his body and put it on a long and pointed stone in the middle of two round stones and worshipped the amulet. That night, the enemies at the foot of hill saw the top of the hill was shining and thousands of soldiers had come to protect the people on the hill. Therefore the enemies were frightened and left. The people on the hill believed that it was the miracle performed by "Kai-zhang Sheng- wang" ("First Divine Patriarch of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Zhangzhou</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype></st1:place>") and the soldiers that were seen at night were spirit soldiers of the god. As a result, they built a temple to worship him represented by the stones (#S49; see figure 52) in memory of the manifestation.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Beside the stone Granny of Ho-peng Ward (#S16), a phallic stone (#S15; see figure 15) wrapped with a red ribbon is worshipped. I was informed that the stone has worn a red ribbon since 1991 and is worshipped only by lottery gamblers.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">III. How the Tree Deities were Deified:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, Performing miracle:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Among the 39 sacred trees I have researched, 6 were deified because of their performing miracles. For instance, in front of <st1:placename st="on">Liong-tek</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype>, one of the most important temples in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chhau-tun</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place>, a giant tree is venerated as the Tree God (#T20; see figure 86). In 1959, there was an enormous flood in the area. When the water came, many villagers survived by climbing up to the tree. Out of gratitude, people began to worship it and identified it with the Tree God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The deification of the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92) is similar to the previous one. The big camphor tree of about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="m" sourcevalue="20" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">20 m</st1:chmetcnv> in height; its trunk about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="m" sourcevalue="5" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">5 m</st1:chmetcnv> round. It is located at the back of <st1:placename st="on">Ho-peng</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Primary School</st1:placetype> and in front of a big <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tai- jion-ia</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>. According to some historical records of the Nantou Country, the tree has been revered as the Tree God since the Qing Dynasty. During the Japanese period, it was also looked upon by the Japanese as a divine tree, with posts erected to protect it from harm (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:13). The legend says that because the tree saved many children by letting them climb up to its branches in a big flood in the Qing Dynasty, the villagers regarded it divine and deified it as the Tree God since. From then on, the Tree God here became the protector of children and the nominal parent of unhealthy children of the villages around.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Jiaqing Era (1796-1821 CE.), Mr. Chhuah, a cowherd, and his playmates set an abandoned statue of Khu Hu Tai-Te (Emperor Khu) and some other deity statues under a banyan tree (#T30; see figure 96) and worshipped them for fun. Surprisingly, the deity statues on the tree disappeared and the tree became so divine that it attracted many local inhabitants to worship it. Then the tree was deified. Nowadays, the deified tree is identified with "the Tree King" (Chhiu Ong Kong) or with the deity statue set on the tree "Emperor Khu" (Khu Hu Tai-Te).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The custodian and elders chatting in the temple of the Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Lam-kian West Road</st1:address></st1:street> (#T34; see figure 101) told me that, originally, some public-spirited local inhabitants collected the unworshipped posthumous bones in the area to deposit them under a big tree and worship them. Later on, after the tree and the posthumous bones performed some miracles by healing skin diseases, people decided to initiate two temples side by side to worship the Land God, the Tree God and the posthumous bones. The tree was deified after that.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A legend says that a day the Emperor Jiaqing visited <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, he and his bodyguards took a rest under a big tree. Surprisingly, a band of bandits came to ambush them. At that moment, a mysterious hero in red suddenly descended from the tree, defeated the bandits and saved the Emperor Jiaqing. The Emperor later realised that the hero was the spirit of the tree. Out of thanksgiving, the Emperor deified the tree as "the Tree King" (#T39; see figure 105). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">About 150 years ago, Chap-ji Field was a sandy place. In their efforts to fight the floods brought about by typhoon from <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Zhenwen</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place> every year, a sapling was planted one year in a peace festival by early cultivators as a protection against floods. As the young plant grew into a tree of enormous size standing out in the vast expanse of the rice field, and flooding was indeed reduced (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:3). Therefore, people deified it as the Tree God (#T28; see figure 94) after that.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">About 40 years ago, Mr. Tan Khun, a poor herbalist, was told in a dream to worship the Autumn Maple tree on Gen-kiu-in Rd. When he came, he found one of the branches of the tree grew like a human head. He regarded this as a miracle and started to worship the tree and named it the Autumn Maple God (Ka-tang Kong, #T33). It is efficacious for healing skin diseases and children's sickness. It is said that those who suffered skin disease would recover quickly by applying the water in which bark they scraped from the tree had been soaked (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="14" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">14f</st1:chmetcnv>). In 1977, when the herbalist became richer, he built the present temple "Shan <st1:place st="on">Nan</st1:place> Gong" and set a statue for the Tree God. The statue is black-haired, red-faced one in a blue Taoistic gown, the same attributes as Xian'gong, the most popular god of the area. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, With Enormous Size:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, trees of enormous size are likely to be deified. According to my field record, at least 15 trees were worshipped for this reason. Exactly speaking, they are not the biggest ones in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. However, because they are so big and distinguishable in their environs, they are regarded as divine. For example, the Beech Grandfather (#T16; see figure 81) of Ke-jiu Kia in Pak-si Ward is not the biggest tree in Pak-si Ward, but because it is located in an area of plain fields, it is very prominent like a landmark and thus deified. The villagers usually call it "the Beech Grandfather" ("Ke-jiu Kong") and regard it as the guardian of the fields and they worship it on the humble altar set under the tree.(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, With Special Location: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a rapidly urbanised country, most large trees located on plains have been cut down; why do some still survive? I attribute it to location beside temples. Indeed, the trees located beside temples are also less possible to cut down and more possibly deified. For example, the Banyan Tree Goddess of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Thong-liang</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T27; see figure 93) was one of the potted trees delivered to the island by a trading boat about 300 years ago. The villagers planted it in front of the village <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Thong-liang</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Many years ago, the tree, because it became big and wide, was deified as the Banyan Tree Goddess. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Beside the Stone God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Uan-lim</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S5; see figure 5), a tree is worshipped as the Tree God (#T1; see figure 66). Because the site where the stone was dug up about 200 years ago was beside the tree, people built the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Temple</st1:place></st1:city> for the Stone God beside the tree and have cherished it very much. About 100 years ago, when the tree had grown big and strong, it was deified and has been worshipped ever since.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Kim-bin Road</st1:address></st1:street> (#T6; see figure 71) was originally the tree for the temple of the Land God of Kim-b</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> Ward. Fifteen years ago, when the tree grew extraordinarily big and when the lottery gambling "Everybody Happy" became prevalent, the tree began to be deified as a patron deity of gambling.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to Mr. Li, a local leader, in the twentieth year of the Qianlong Era (1736-1796 CE.), a gentlemen called Li Chhong and his relatives crossed the Taiwan Straits from Fujian Province to the area (Tun-ho Ward). When they settled down, they used three stones to build a shrine of the Land God under the banyan tree. Later on, when the stone-made shrine was covered by the trunk of the tree, the statues of the Land God became invisible; people gradually forgot why they worshipped the tree and began to call the tree the Tree God (#T14; see figure 79), not the Land God. As a result of this, the villagers, though some still worship the tree as the Land God, had to initiate another shrine for the Land God beside the tree. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Tree God (#T15; see figure 80) was originally the tree for the shrine of the Land God of To.-sian Ward, a small Hakka hamlet. About 100 years ago, when the tree grew extraordinarily big, the villagers began to deify it as the Tree God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In front of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of the hamlet "Tua-khut" in Sin-hong Ward, a big tree is worshipped as the Tree God (#T17; see figure 82). I was told that originally the tree was for the temple of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>. About 20 years ago, when it grew big and strong, people hung a red ribbon on the trunk of the tree and apotheosised it as the Tree God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Beside the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52), an altar is set under a tree. I thought the altar was for the worship of the Tree God, but they said the tree was the tree Land God (#T35; see figure 102) and not the Tree God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A signboard is set by Taipei County government under a big banyan tree (#T36; see figure 103) beside a small hamlet in Pak- li Rural-town and states that the tree is hundreds of years old and should be preserved as a Pah-lin-lau-chhiu (tree of hundreds age or the Elderly Tree). However, the villagers traditionally sacrifice to it and worship it as a deity. When asked who the deity is, some villagers replied that it was the Land God, some replied that it is the tree Land God, some replied that it is the tree for the shrine of the Land God under the tree, while some replied that it is just a tree deity. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Tree God of Tho-a Kha Hamlet in Lam-huin Ward (#T37) was originally a tree for the shrine of the Land God of Lam-huin Ward. I was told that about 100 years ago a tiny shrine was built under the tree for the worship of the Land God. But when the shrine collapsed about 20 years ago, the local inhabitants built a temple for the Land God on a spacious place nearby and left the tree alone. About five years ago, a religious specialist told them that the tree had been possessed by an immortal (shenxian), therefore they started to worship it as the Tree God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The tree (#T29; see figure 95) representing the General Chu of Peh-hun-a is protected and worshipped at the outside of the courtyard of a goddess temple. When I first encountered it, I guessed that it was the tree Land God or the Tree God. But people there reported to me that it is the General <st1:place st="on">Chu</st1:place> (Chu-hu Chiang- kun), the guardian of the patron deity in the goddess temple. "The location of the tree is so close to the goddess temple" I was told, "just as General Chu closely guards the goddess."<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Tree God of Khe-te (#T21; see figure 87) was originally the tree for the temple of the Land God of Khe-te hamlet. Since 15 years ago, when the tree grew extraordinarily big and when the lottery gambling "Dajiale (Everybody Happy)" became prevalent, the tree began to be deified as a patron deity of gambling.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, we find that the Pine King of Chong-ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67) is located in front of the big <st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Khai-chiang-seng-ong</st1:placename> (literally, the First Divine Patriarch of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chiang-chiu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype></st1:place>). The Tree God and Goddess of <st1:placename st="on">Kui-sin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype> (#T7; see figure 72) were originally located in front of the village <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Kui-sin Village</st1:placename></st1:place>. Even though the trees died some decades ago, statues were carved for the worship of these two divine trees in the village temple. The Tree God of So.-o Urban-town (#T10; see figure 75) is located behind a martyr shrine named "Chi?pai Kong (literally, the Stone Tablet God)". The Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Chhau-lia Lane</st1:address></st1:street> (#T25; see figure 91) is located beside a small <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Tai-chiong-ia</st1:placename></st1:place> (the enshrined posthumous bones, a kind of responsive deity). The Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92) is located in front of a big <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Mass</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">Grave</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> also. The Banyan God of Sion-lim Ward (#T18; see figure 83) is on the back of the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35). Because of the location, they are all luckily preserved and grown into divine trees.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">IV. Stones and Trees Representing Deities:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are still some stones and trees that became sacred not because of miracles, unusual appearance, special location or unusual origin, but simply because they were chosen by people at random. For example, in the beginning of the Pak-gi Highway (the main road leading from Gi-lan County to Taipei), a stone (#S7; see figure 7) of about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="100" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">100 cm</st1:chmetcnv> wide, <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="40" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">40 cm</st1:chmetcnv> high and <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="50" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">50 cm</st1:chmetcnv> long is enshrined in a low, shed-like shrine made of metal sheet. Mr. </span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">n Tiong-siu, an elder, told me that the stone has been worshipped since at least when his mother was young. Therefore the temple is more than 80 years old. He said that when his mother became old and weak, they went to the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Te-kun</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> not far from the area. Through divination of a shaman of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Te-kun</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>, the God Te- kun ordered them to build a temple for the Stone God. Therefore the family initiated the small temple of the God and his mother became healthy again. I asked him why the stone was originally deified, he answered: "It is simple. Because when the pioneers, the ancestors of the villagers, came to the area, they chose a stone and 'entitled' ('ho.') it "the Stone God", and it has been deified since."<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Bah-tau Hamlet of Siang-tan Ward, a stone (#S22; see figure 23) is worshipped at the right-hand side of the Land God temple. There is nothing special about the stone's appearance. Local people told me that they just chose the stone at random to "represent" the Good Brothers to be the object to sacrifice to them.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The gentleman who presently takes care of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> of E-tiau-chun of Sin-hong Ward told me that he knew the origin of the two stones representing the Land God. He said that about 60 years ago, his father and senior relatives considered that it was no good not to have a temple for the Land God in the hamlet. They decided to go to a dry river bed to choose some flat stones to build a dolmen and a stone of the size that could be set in the dolmen to be the statue of the Land God. When the present temple was built, the dolmen was thrown away and an elaborate statue, the present patron deity statue, was set at the centre of the altar table, and the original stone Land God was moved aside to become an associate statue. Later on, the second stone which looks like the first one, was chosen and put at the right side of the patron statue as a couple. Therefore there are two stones, one on the right side of the patron deity statue and one on the left side, in the temple to represent the Land God (#S29; see figure 31) of the hamlet. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Japanese Period, two gamblers who were escaping from Japanese policemen ran into the Stone God temple and made a wish that if the Stone God could bless them to escape from the policemen, they would worship him forever. After they succeeded in escaping the policemen, they forgot the wish to the Stone God. But when they were back to their home village safely, one of the gamblers dreamed that he had come back to the mother temple of </span></b><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">n-lim</span></b></st1:placename><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></span></b></st1:place><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> to worship. As a result, they quit gambling and chose a stone (#S37; see figure 39) and rested the amulet they got from the temple of </span></b><st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">n-lim</span></b></st1:placename><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></span></b></st1:place><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> on it to worship. It is the initiation of the present temple and the stone they chose is now worshipped in the temple for the Stone God Hi-ti Rural-town. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Beside Hok-siong Kiong (literally, Palace for the Land God and the banyan god), a small <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>, a tree is venerated as the Tree God (#T9; see figure 74). The tree is the youngest deified tree I have ever seen. I was very curious why they worshipped the young tree. The neighbours told me that originally pioneers came to this area with a statue of the Land God from mainland <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> more than 150 years ago. They put the statue under a big tree and worshipped. The tree grew into the Tree God afterwards and nominally adopted many children. When the original deified tree died, neighbours chose a tree and planted it to replace the original tree and continued to worship the young tree as the Tree God and to venerate as a nominal parent of unhealthy children. That is why they, unlike other areas, worship a young tree. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The cases do not happen only in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> alone. In Jinhua of <st1:state st="on">Zhejiang</st1:state> <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Provence</st1:place></st1:state>, Eberhard (1970:21), for example, came across a holy tree, in front of which there were still some incense sticks and the remains of numerous prayer notes addressed to the "mother camphor tree." The people told him they chose the tree as the mother of children, so that the children might grow as strong as the tree. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Again, in some places of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, people chose an upright cylindrical stone to represent their Land God. For example, in San-tiau Hill, an upright stone pillar is worshipped in a stone chamber as the Land God (#S23; see figure 25) of the hamlet. However, we are not able to see the stone pillar, since it is hidden by the stone chamber that collapsed many years ago. Beside the stone chamber, a stone is chosen as an object for the worship of the Good Brothers. I was told that villagers will also sacrifice to the stone representing the Good Brothers (#S24; see figure 26) after they worship the stone Land God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In E-kham-te Hamlet of Pak-si Ward, there is a stone pillar worshipped as the Land God (#S25; see figure 27) in a stone chamber. The stone inside the chamber set vertically beneath the centre of the dolmen is made of a stone pillar of about one chi (i.e. about <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="30" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">30 cm</st1:chmetcnv>) in length and one chi in width. The upper half of it is pointed and bell-shaped and the lower half is buried into the ground. Beside the stone chamber, a similar stone (#S26; see figure 28) is venerated also in another stone chamber. I was told that the two stone chambers were built by Mr. Ui Chhun- phang, the former landlord of the area. About seventy years ago, Mr. Ui Chhun-phang's rice fields in the area got sick. He considered that the malady was caused by Mr. Ang whose corpse was buried under the field and left unworshipped. Therefore Mr. </span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> Chhun-phang set an upright cylindrical stone (#S26; see figure 28) and built the tiny stone-made chamber to worship him in every seventh lunar month. He, in the meantime, built the stone-made chamber beside it under an Autumn Maple tree. Unfortunately, nobody knew why he chose the upright cylindrical stones.(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">V. Themselves Deities or Possessed by Supernatural Beings:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It has been a long puzzled question: are the Chinese stones and trees which are worshipped themselves deities or are they possessed by certain supernatural beings?(note.10) Burkhardt (<st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:122), for example, reported that in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Guangdong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place> the stones and trees became divine and efficacious because they were "occupied" by spirits. A field record from a Hakka <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">village</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Hong Kong</st1:placename></st1:place> also indicates that the unusual stones and trees were "resided in" by spirits (Berkovits and others 1969:37). Yuan Chang-rue in his investigation in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> also says that trees of unusual shape are believed to be "possessed" by certain supernatural power (1993:18). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nonetheless, in field work in Sichuan Provence in 1924 and 1925, and again in 1935, villagers assured Graham that it is not that a spirit or a deity is living in the tree, but that the tree itself is a god (1936:59). Eberhard (1970:22-3) also verifies that, in Jinhua of <st1:state st="on">Zhejiang</st1:state> <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Provence</st1:place></st1:state>, divine trees are conceived of and actually worshipped as deities.(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">So far, I can say that, according to my field data, the stones that performed miracles, are on special locations, have unusual origins and unusual appearances are themselves regarded as deities. By the same token, the trees that performed miracles, are at special locations and of enormous size are themselves regarded as deities. These cases, where some human characteristics such as speech, thought, and emotions are attributed to stones, we can say that these are cases of at least partial anthropomorphism. On the contrary, the Tree God of Lam- huin Ward (#T37) is itself regarded as a deity but is clearly believed by the local people to be a tree possessed by a spirit.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, the stone (#S7; see figure 7) venerated in Kim-eng Ward is a stone chosen to represent the Stone God; the stone (#S22; see figure 23) venerated in Siang-tan Ward is a stone chosen to represent the Good Brothers; the stone (#S29; see figure 31) worshipped in Sin-hong Ward is a stone chosen to represent the Land God of Sin-hong Ward; the stone (#S37; see figure 39) venerated in Hi-ti Rural-town is a stone chosen to represent the Stone God; the tree (#T9; see figure 74) worshipped in Tiong-san Ward is a tree planted to represent the Tree God; the tree reported by Eberhard (1970:21) is a tree chosen as the "mother camphor tree". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, people of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25) and Pak-si Ward (#S25; see figure 27) each chose an upright cylindrical stone to represent the Land God. People of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26) and Pak-si Ward (#S26; see figure 28) each chose an upright cylindrical stone to represent the Good Brothers. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The practice of choosing a stone or tree to represent a deity is similar to that of the deity statue. In Chinese popular culture, as in many cultures, people have a love for the concrete (cf. Kooy 1985:681-82). The deities such as the Land God, the Stone God, the Tree God and the Good Brothers are normally invisible. Through the representation of the stone or tree, they can be worshipped concretely and visibly.(note.12) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VI. Cultural and Psychological significance of Deification:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Why, then, are the stones and trees with miracles, special locations, unusual origins, unusual appearances or enormous size regarded as sacred? Eliade maintains that: "Man becomes aware of the sacred because it manifests itself, as something wholly different from the profane" (1961:11), namely, because of "hierophany" (Eliade 1958; 1961; 1989).(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">"Hierophany" is a good description of the sense of reverence which these stones and trees evoke. It can also roughly explain why they, while remaining their botanical or geological forms, are regarded as the sacred, that is, as containing intrinsic mystery. However, since the forms of hierophanies vary from one culture to another (cf. Eliade & Sullivan 1987:313), the notion of the term is too general to demonstrate why Chinese prefer worshipping stones with the forms reminiscent of, for instance, a crane or turtle. Actually, to understand why some forms can be treated as hierophany while others are not, it is vital to understand the significance of these forms in their own cultural context. For example, among the four mythical animals in Chinese culture (the turtle, the dragon, the phoenix and the chimera), only the turtle is a real flesh-and-blood creature. It is a creation of nature that carries its round shell over the ground, like heaven, and has a flat bottom, like earth. The turtle is a very special symbol. As the Black Warrior, it presides over the northern quadrant; it signifies winter, symbolises strength and endurance, and is emblematic of longevity (Morgan 1942:8; Allan 1991).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The crane is also significant in Chinese culture. It, next to the phoenix, is the most celebrated bird in Chinese world, and is endowed with many mythical attributes. Many legends refer to it as the "patriarch" of the feathered creatures and the "aerial courser of the Immortals" (Morgan 1942:128).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to classical Chinese mythology, there are four types of crane, the black, yellow, white and blue. The black crane is the longest lived and, according to tradition, it takes no food after reaching the age of 600 years, but still drinks. Myths tell of human beings having been turned into the form of a crane and also state that the crane "constantly manifests a peculiar interest in human affairs." The crane is symbolic of age and emblematic of longevity (Morgan 1942:128-29). Its mystery has evoked reverence in Chinese world for thousands years. In order to comprehend the intrinsic mystery of turtle and crane, it is vital to understand Chinese cosmological ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, even though the significance of turtle and crane is well recorded in classical Chinese mythology, the education in modern schools totally ignores it (see Chapter One for details). What is the mechanism to reproduce their significance? I think it is the religious education in family, temple and others. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As noted before, common people's religious activities are carried out in family altars and/or temples, they are places where children can learn ritual practice from their seniors. For example, temple murals - with scenes of historical heroes and villains illustrating reward and punishment, loyalty, and filial piety - are used as education instrument to teach religious and cultural stories. The temple is also the place where puppet show, Taiwanese opera, story telling and other arts are performed, where popular religious books are circulated, where religious troops are trained and practised. In brief, family altars and temples are major places where the basic religious conceptions of the young are shaped. The two specific places, as I observed in field work, in all aspects hold the turtle and crane as sacred symbols consisting of intrinsic mystery. The young who participate temple and family altar affairs all understand that the two mythical animals are divine. It is natural that when they encounter a stone with the shape of crane or turtle, they realise the intrinsic mystery it contains and thus deify it. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The worship of phallus is also significant in Chinese culture. From a paleographic approach, Karlgren (1930:21) ascertains that the Chinese worship of both "Ancestor" ("Zu") and "the Ancient Earth Altar" ("She") are originally worship of the phallus (cf. Ling Shun-sheng <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1959" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1959a</st1:chmetcnv>:178; Fitzgerald 1961:45-50; Berkovits and others 1969:123). As far as Taiwan is concerned, as described above, the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35), the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam- teng Hamlet (#S49; see figure 52) and the Stone God of Ho peng Ward (#S15; see figure 15) are all worship of the phallus.(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, unlike the worship of crane and turtle which is especially distinctive in Chinese culture, phallicism, probably because of people's longing for fertility and eternal life, is practised in so many parts of the world (cf. Henderson (1964) 1990:143). The earliest appearance of the phallus as an image is perhaps in the arts of Paleolithic hunters (Elder 1987:263). Dependent as they were upon the abundance of animals, they made fertility images of the phallus engraved in human form on bones and antlers. It is quite possible that the hunters were aware of a supernatural reality beyond the physical and apparent, and the phallic images were intended to evoke a divine power that lay behind the abundance of animal life. There is evidence that some megalithic monuments, whether shaped by art or not, or even natural rocks and other objects of a suggestive form, have been taken for phalli (Hartland <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1917a</st1:chmetcnv>:819). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In India, archaeologists have found several stone replicas of the human phallus, no more than about two feet in length, and an engraved seal depicting a male figure with horns and a strange face that may be multiple, sitting in a position that has come to be called Yogic, with an exposed, erect penis (Elder 1987:267). Besides, the Lingam and Yoni are very widely distributed in this country (Hartland <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1917a</st1:chmetcnv>:818). The "lingam" (from the Sanskrit linga, "phallus") is an upright cylinder rounded at the top and is the emblem of the great god Siva. It is usually represented united with the yoni as a smooth round stone, rising out of another stone, formed like an elongated saucer (Hartland <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1917a</st1:chmetcnv>:819; Jung (1934) 1980:357; Elder 1987:263; Bloss 1987:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="293" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">293f</st1:chmetcnv>). The nineteenth-century Christian missionaries and European civil servants who served in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">India</st1:place></st1:country-region> were quick to express their surprise, disgust, and horror at the cult (Michael 1982:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="203" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">203f</st1:chmetcnv>). However, such a representation is merely a conventional symbol, and even modern Saiva Hindus, who worship them openly, are not always sure they are faced with an image of a sexual organ (cf. Elder 1987:263), or, at least, are unwilling to discuss the matter with visiting field workers. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Dosojin, a deity of Japanese folk religion, can be seen today in thousands of images, typically at the edge of a rice field or along the roadside (cf. Hartland <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1917a</st1:chmetcnv>:819). He is a god of harvests and a place deity who protects the field from trespassers and so on (Elder 1987:263). Dosojin may be seen as a realistically rendered, upright stone phallus, a few feet in height, or, just as likely, as a pair of phalli characterizing, presumably, his double nature. Indeed, his most frequent image is that of a "loving couple," usually holding hands but sometimes enjoying coitus in relief on a stone that may itself be phallic.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In some parts of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> and the neighbouring countries, ithyphallic saints have been worshipped for the purpose of obtaining offspring or curing impotence and sexual disease. Perhaps the most famous of these was St. Foutin (whose name is variously spelt), by tradition the first bishop of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Lyons</st1:place></st1:city>. His cult was wide-spread in the south of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. When in 1585, the Protestants took the town of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Embrun</st1:place></st1:city>, they found among the sacred relics of the principal church an object said to be his phallus. Its extremity was reddened by the libations of wine offered to it by women in need of his help (Hartland <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1917a</st1:chmetcnv>:817).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Indeed, stone contains intrinsic beauty and suggests eternity. Many people cannot refrain from worshipping a stone or tree of a slightly unusual colour or shape, without knowing why they do this (Franz 1990 (1964):209). Psychologically speaking, it is innate in human nature. From the field research, we observe that in modern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, many people still cannot refrain from deifying stones without knowing why. We see, for instances, that cowherds of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8), Tan-suan Rural-town (#S10), and Pak-tau istrict(#S47) were all attracted by stones and worshipped them without any obvious reason. However, whether Chinese have a distinctive figuration of phallicism is a question needed for further investigation and analysis. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VII. Miracle, Standardisation, and Historicisation:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the previous chapter, we saw that since many divine stones and trees are not standardised, common people have their own mechanism to identify the festival dates for them. From the study of the origins of these natural objects' deification, we also observe that the origins are different from those of deities who are standardised in the written accounts. For instance, many oral versions of the Heavenly Empress contained strong hints that she was a seer or medium and had a special relationship with spinsters and other unmarried women. But the imperial-elite standardised myths that describe deification of her tend to serve as a means to carry the messages of civilization, order, and loyalty to the state (Watson 1985:323). Similarly, the story of the Heavenly Empress appearing in the Republican-elite standardised textbooks tells that she is merely a moral young girl who stands on the shore with a lantern in hand, filially awaiting the return of her father and brothers. No miracles performed by her are told (Meyer 1987:45). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, miracles are very important for common people. Many Taiwanese believe in a certain deity since he or she directly or indirectly perform a miracle for them. Many temples were initiated because the deities performed miracles to people. In the previous sections, we saw that eleven stones and six trees were deified because they originally performed miracles. Moreover, many religious specialists get their professional careers and gain extraordinary powers by encountering miracles instead of through apprenticeship. For example, Feuchtwang (1993:42) reports that a spirit-medium started his religious career since a deity revealed himself to him. When he served his three years' national service in the navy, the ship on which he was serving hit rocks and sank. He was about to drown when he was saved. Whatever saved him, he identified it as the appearance of an immortal spirit called "the Sage King Guo (Guo Shengwang)". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nonetheless, unlike the imperial-elite standardised ones, most of the miracle legends do not serve as a means to carry the messages of civilization, order, and loyalty to the state. Only one tree's deification legend relates to the loyalty to the state. It is the "Tree King of Tai-li Rural-town (#T39)" mentioned previously. However, according to the official history, the Emperor Jiaqing never did visit <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Why did local people manipulate the history and why did they historicise the tree's deification legend?<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">People in Taiwan often hear a legend that we eat pumeloes and moon cakes at the Mid-Autumn Festival in memory of the Ethnic Revolt and the Land God in the Mid-autumn against the Mongol Yuan Administration:(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At the end of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 CE.), the Chinese people led lives of terrible hardship. At last they could bear it no more, so plans were made for a revolt against the Mongols. However, the Chinese had the greatest difficulty trying to keep in contact with each other and pass on information. This was because in every two or three Chinese families there was a Mongol soldier billeted to keep a vigilant eye on his hosts' every action at all times. Fortunately, at this critical moment, the Land God appeared and advised Chinese to take advantage of the medium-sized, round cakes that were so often taken to friends and relatives living some distance away. Little notes containing subversive information were concealed in the cakes, thus forming a link between all planners of the future revolt. With the distribution of important military plans, including the most important message - the date of the revolt, when this eventually occurred, Chinese utterly devastated their despised oppressors, and restored the leadership of China to the hands of her own countrymen. From that time onwards, at the Mid-Autumn Festival, every family worships the Land God and eats moon cakes and pumeloes in memory of the revolution and the Land God.(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">A pumeloe, round, reddish citrus fruit very similar to the grapefruit although larger, and about the size of a human head, is said to symbolise the head of the fallen Yuan rulers. However, from the previous chapters, we learn that the cult of the Land God originated much earlier than the time of the Mid-autumn Revolt. Why, then, is the Land God attached the Ethnic Revolt? In other words, why do people make every effort to put their deities into historical contexts? Scholars have entitled this phenomenon "historicisation" (Maspero 1981; Feuchtwang 1992, 1993; cf. Allan 1979:3-5). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">We can say that the Tree King's legend is attached to the Emperor because it can serve as a messager of order and loyalty. We can say that the attachment of the Land God to the Mid-autumn Ethnic Revolt is to explain why people worship him on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month. We can also say that the legends cited in the last two chapters are to anthropomorphise these deities in order to stress that they were originally deified human beings. However, if we put our interpretation of these legends into Chinese cultural context, especially the notion of history, they mean more than these. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">History is something significant in Chinese culture. Feuchtwang (1992:7) points out that: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The past was a lesson of good conduct. The past was the record of sages and the exemplary statements and conduct of those who followed them. It was negative examples of those who departed from their way. And it was stories of the correct who suffered under negative examples of rule. Historical signification here is an operation by which a past lends authority to a present in a continuing order. The past is demarcated and its pastness sanctified.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For Chinese people, history means authority. "Taishibi (historian's pen)" is the final judgement of one's conduct. The conducts written into history are something real and unchangeable. To historicise something is to make it real and unchangeable and, as a result, authoritative. Therefore, once we interpret these legends contextually, we find that the reason the Emperor Jiaqing is attached to the Tree King's legend is to historicise the deity. We find that the reason the Land God is attached to the Ethnic Revolt is to historicise the deity. We find that the reason the Land God legends articulating name, birthplace, life time, occupation, and conduct leading to deification is also to historicise the deity. With historicisation, these legends, like Chinese understanding of history, become real and unchangeable. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Furthermore, local leaders can gain authority by narrating history (Feuchtwang 1993:45). During the field work, I again and again encountered this authority. For instance, every time when I interviewed people around a temple about the history of it, they normally suggested that I should go to ask local leaders because these leaders knew the history better. When I interviewed people in the <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> called Tiong-kheng-bi?(literally, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Eternal Celebration</st1:placename></st1:place>) located in Tong-an Street, a worshipper told me that the black stone (#S42) enshrined in the centre of the altar was the Stone God. But a local leader straightforwardly corrected him and assured me that it was the stone Land God deified by their ancestors. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In order to keep these legends as real histories, the local leaders can not tolerate divergence. Probably as a result that I could not get more than one version of a temple's deification legend and most of the deification legends presented in the previous sections are retold by those who I interviewed as if real histories.(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VIII. Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Due to the lack of data, studies of stone and tree worship in the western world are difficult. So far only little literary and archaeological evidence can offer some indirect background for interpretation (cf. Graesser 1972). Therefore, the deification legends derived from my field research are relatively significant. They can help us understand why some stones and trees, while remaining their botanical or geological forms, are regarded as the sacred. They can also help us understand that it is vital to comprehend the significance of these deifications in their own cultural context, if we are to know why some forms can be treated as divine while others are not. However, people are sometimes attracted by certain stones and trees and thus worshipped them without any obvious cultural reason. Probably, it can only be explained from psychological points of view.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As far as the field of Chinese religious studies is concerned, the initiations of Chinese popular cults cannot be explained away by the phrase "because of the increasing recognition of their efficacy." Only through the collection of literary data and long-term field work can we comprehend them. In addition, the field data can help illustrate that some natural objects are themselves treated as animate, some are regarded as having gods inhabiting them, while others are simply considered as objects representing the deities similar to the function of deity statues. The difference between the natural objects (no matter whether they are themselves animate, having gods inhabiting them, or representing the deities) and the deity statues is that for the latter, before they are worshipped, a rite of inspiriting (rushen) should be performed, while for the natural objects it is not required.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It is also noteworthy that none of the stones and trees which were deified since they performed miracles are treated as the Land God.(note.18) It is perhaps because the Land God has a firm place in Chinese popular religion and is universally worshipped throughout Chinese world, he does not need to perform miracles in order to get deification. However, it might be because these divine stones and trees are not popular enough to attract the elites' notice to standardise them, their legends tend to be locally told and orally transmitted and thus still consist of certain miracles. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Furthermore, if putting our interpretation of the deification legends into Chinese cultural context, we will understand why people make efforts to historicise the deities' legends. History means something real and unchangeable. With historicisation, these legends, like Chinese understanding of history, become real and unchangeable. In order to keep these legends as real histories, the local leaders cannot tolerate divergent legends. For this reason, most of time I could get only one version of a temple's deification legend. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For an excellent discussion of the tautology, please see Sangren (1984:10). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I am aware that the "stories" collected from field work can be categorized as "myths", "legends", "narratives", "history", or "tales" etc., However, as my informants regard what they told me as "chuanshuo", I shall translate these stories as "legends". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, some told me that the divination was through a shaman and the depth he should dig for the cylindrical stone was <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="180" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">180 cm</st1:chmetcnv>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the details of the lottery, please see Chapter Seven. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Yuan Chang-rue (1993:6-7) also documents the Mango King of Jiayi (Chia-yi) County, which was deified because of performing a miracle. Over 100 years ago, one day a farmer carried the dead body of his child to the cemetery to bury. Finding he had forgotten to bring his hoe with him, he laid the dead body of the child under a mango tree and headed home. When he returned, he found the child had recovered. On the night of that very day, he had a dream and learned that it was the mango tree god that had brought his child back to life. To repay the grace that the god granted him, he carved out a joss out of the mango tree to worship. Later on, because of the efficacy of the god in curing diseases, fund was raised by the local people to build a temple to honour the god. Now the god has become the patron god of the locality. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are many examples indicative of the ability of Chinese living among non-Chinese peoples to incorporate local elements in their religion. In <st1:place st="on">Malaya</st1:place>, Chinese are reported to worship at shrines to Malay saints and spirit medium cults have arisen at which Malay-speaking saints appear (Shepherd 1984:48). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the term "dolmen", I shall follow the definition of Edsman (1987:50) and mean "a table stone or large, flat, unhewn stone resting horizontally on upright ones." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Similarly, the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68), the Tree God of Thau-hun Village (#T4; see figure 69), the Tree God of Siong-tek Village (#T5; see figure 70), the Tree God of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73), the tree Land God of In-suan Street (#T11; see figure 76), the tree Land God of the East Gate (#T12; see figure 77), the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 84), the Tree God of Cho.-su Lane (#T22; see figure 88), the Tree God of Uan-chip Road (#T23; see figure 89), the Tree God of Lo-chui Village (#T24; see figure 90), the Tree God of Po-san Ward (#T31; see figure 97), the Tree God of Chheng-bek Ward (#T32; see figure 98) and the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104) are all deified by the same reason (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Due to the lack of historical records and the limitation of the field interview, so far I am not able to figure out the reason for sacralizing the following stone and tree deities. They are: the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#S1), the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2), the Stone God of Jin-ho Village (#S11; see figure 11), the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20), the Divine Stone of Giong-tek Boulevard (#S41; see figure 43), the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58). Of course, as I have argued above, in many cases, there may have been no reason why a particular stone rather than another was chosen (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Allan (1979:3), when doing research on religious belief of the Shang Dynasty, also maintains that it is impossible to tell whether natural objects were themselves considered animate or other gods inhabited them. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The question whether stones and trees are themselves deities or possessed by certain supernatural beings can be discussed by the academic terms "animism" and "animatism". However, due to the various degrees of definiteness of definition of these terms, I shall avoid using them. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Watson (1985:310) also reports a stone serving as the representation of a goddess:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Some time in the misty past, so the story goes, a cone-shaped stone was dredged up by a fishing net. The stone was taken to be the representation of a deity and installed in a shrine near the place where a small stream (<st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Sand</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">River</st1:placetype></st1:place>) emptied into the sea. This minor deity, it is said, was worshipped by fisherpeople and itinerants who lived along the coast -- sedentary farmers were not involved in the cult.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">"Hierophany (from Greek hiero-, 'sacred,' and phainein, 'to show')" is a term created by Eliade to designate the general manifestation of the sacred (Eliade & Sullivan 1987:313). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As mentioned in Chapter One, some cylindrically shaped stones are found in an Alizu temple at Beitouyang. They are readily interpreted as phalli (Shepherd 1984:39). But it is a Plain Aboriginal cult. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The legend is very much similar to the one recorded by Wei & Coutanceau (1976:96-98). The only difference is that the Land God, the protagonist of this legend, does not appear in Wei & Coutanceau's record. For convenience's sake, the wording of the legend is based on that of Wei & Coutanceau. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Cormack (1974:138-89) also records a similar legend of the Mid- autumn Ethnic Revolt. However, the revolt was not inspired by the Land God but by "a heaven-sent impulse". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The other cause that I could not get more versions of a temple's deification legend is, I think, due to the lack of historical records and the limitation of my field interview. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As far as I know, only the case reported by Liu Zhiwan (1961:127) is an exception:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Nantou City</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region></st1:place>, there is a stone venerated in a temple. I was told that in the eleventh lunar month of 1869, there were three stones suddenly shining in the night. The people of this locality considered it a miracle performed by the Land God and built a humble shrine to house and worship them for the well-being and harvest. In 1923, the shrine was enlarged and a statue of the Land God was positioned. Nowadays, people regard the statue as the Land God and the stone (the other two stones missing) as the Stone God (my translation). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-8296550715148685132008-02-09T02:53:00.000-08:002008-02-17T02:57:24.866-08:00Chapter Six: Nominal Adoption and the Three Deities<span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">I. Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">When traditional Taiwanese think of stone and tree deities, they think of nominal adoption of unhealthy children. Indeed, the most distinctive role these deities play in traditional Taiwanese society is that they are guardians of children. As soon as a child is found "fundamentally weak", s/he will be taken to be nominally adopted either by a deity or a respectable woman. Among these deities who act as nominal parents, the Stone God and the Tree God are particular and worthy of study. According to my field research, almost half of the natural objects I studied are connected with the religious custom of nominal adoption. In this chapter, I shall first portray two religious customs relating to nominal adoption. I shall then analyse why some of the natural objects, among others, are favoured to be nominal parents. I also discuss the reasons some deities are thought unsuitable for nominal adoption. Finally, I shall argue why these deities are distinctive among other guardians of children.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">II. Nominal Adoption and "Taking Water and Rice":<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese culture seriously asks every family to have descendants. Mencius, one of the most respectable philosophers, says: "There are three things which are unfilial, and having no progeny is the worst of these" (Mencius, IV. i. 26). However, it is not an easy task to raise a baby. Many biological and emotional difficulties can be anticipated in the period immediately following the birth of a child. The new born baby might refuse to nurse and gain little weight; it may also have a variety of disorders. J. M. Potter (1974), after doing research on Cantonese villages, reports that Cantonese:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">... attribute most children's illnesses to soul loss. The souls of small children are loosely attached, and are easily frightened out of the child's body, making the child ill. Or a hungry or malicious ghost may enter a person's body and steal his soul. Usually the ghost holds the soul for ransom, releasing it in return for offerings of food and money. Sometimes the assistance of deities and spirit soldiers is needed to force a powerful and determined ghost to release a kidnapped soul. Intrusion of a ghost into a person's body is a third possible cause of illness. Because children are such easy prey for malicious spirits, sick children constitute most of the spirit medium's case-load. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Taiwanese generally believe that a child who is "kin-ki-jiok (literally, fundamentally weak)" is susceptible to getting sick and not expected to live very long, unless his/her fate is modified. (note.1)The child's souls, thus, are loosely attached, and are easily frightened out of the child's body by malicious spirits, making the child ill. It is called "phah tio kian" (being frightened). For the unhealthy (and unfortunate) child, both the medical treatment and the assistance of deities to ward off the evil spirits are needed, hence the saying: "Man ai sin, man ai lang (both person and deity are needed)".<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Even though some children are fated to be fundamentally weak, pure fatalism, in the sense of passively allowing the world to work its own way, is not triumphal in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. (note.2)There is instead a keen interest in foreseeing and modifying fate, because if the course of events can be foreseen, one's life can then be aligned with the direction of fate. It is better to be prepared and go with the current in order to maximize the good of life and minimize the hardship. Consequently, there are numerous forms of divination to deal with fate, from consulting spiritual mediums to drawing lots and oracle verses. There are also various ways to change or amend one's fate through the selection of an auspicious name, by seeking the intervention of a powerful deity, or nominal adoption by a person with fortunes or a deity with spiritual protective power (cf. Cohen 1987:290). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Indeed, if a child is physically or in any way manifestly abnormal, medical treatment is required. But if it is not so obvious, the child's parent might ask the elders of the neighbourhood for advice or go to the market town to consult a fortune-teller or shaman. If told that the child is not fortunate, namely, if the child is declared to be "fundamentally weak", the senior relative, elder of neighbourhood or fortune- teller consulted will recommend the establishment of a protective nominal kinship relation with a person or deity. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">An easy and popular means to amend the baby's fate is to establish a kin relationship, known to the Taiwanese as "siu kheh-kian (literally, nominally adopting a child)", with a person or deity.(note.3) Usually a respectable woman who has raised many children to maturity, known to Taiwanese as "ho-mia-po (literally, fortunate woman), and whose husband, too, is lucky and prosperous, is considered suitable for the nominal adoption. The adoption between the "fundamentally weak" child and a person with fortunes, however, is purely nominal. It is not guaranteed by an official contract and gives no right to a material inheritance. The practice is based on the notion that the luck and, thus, the protective power of the nominal parents will be extended to their nominal children. (note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, certain basic obligations are incurred; the child should visit the nominal mother on all occasions when Chinese visit paternal kin and should come armed with gifts (cf. Topley 1974:244). In <st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the custom of nominal adoption is specifically called "Kuan-chui-bi (literally, taking water and rice). Once the nominal adoption is agreed by the child's family and the respectable woman, the child's parent/s goes to the fortunate woman's home with the child and takes some water and rice home. When the act is repeated three times, the rite of "Kuan-chui-bi" is complete. The relation of nominal adoption is also recognised from that time on.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Traditionally, the custom of "Kuan-chui-bi" is practised only when the nominal parent is a person and not a deity. However, a temple named "Te-bo Bio (<st1:city st="on">Temple</st1:city> of the Earth Mother) In <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> is an exception. The Earth Mother of the temple, like many other Chinese goddesses, nominally adopts children. But the custom of nominal adoption is also "Kuan-chui-bi". I was told that any "fundamentally weak" child can come to the temple to ask goddess to grant nominal adoption. The grant is confirmed by divination of the moonblocks. If the Earth Mother agrees to adopt the weak child, the child's parent should come to the temple three consecutive times on the first day and fifteenth day of each month to take home a small amount of water and rice offered by the temple and cook them to feed the child. The water and rice are regarded as having magical power to improve the child's health. I am not sure why only this goddess's temple practises the custom of "Kuan-chui-bi", but it is probably because people consider the goddess to be more merciful than male deities who are usually regarded as bureaucrats. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">III. Nominal Adoption and "Wearing the Amulet"<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The same rationale applies when the nominal parent, either male or female, is a deity. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, a child who is "fundamentally weak" may be nominally adopted to almost any deity with great protective power. But the following deities are popular for the nominal adoption: the Stone God, the Tree God, the Bed Goddess, the Seven Star Goddesses, Guanyin (Koan-im-man ,Female Buddhisava), the Granny, or the Earth Mother (Te-bo) and some others. (note.5)Among the 61 stone deities I studied, 26 deities nominally adopt children.(note.6) Among the 39 tree deities, 19 deities adopt children.(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Traditionally, once a baby has reached its "muan-gue(i.e. a full month old)" but is regarded as "fundamentally weak", its parents will take it to a temple to worship the Stone God, the Tree God or other deities, if they prefer their baby to be adopted by a deity instead of a person, in order to engage her/his divine protection. During worship, an ancient coin, silver medallion, or medallion is hung on red silk thread, passed over the incense burner, and is worn on the neck of the child as an amulet. The rite is called "Kuan-kuin (Wearing the Amulet)". Yuan Chang-rue reports us a formal rite from a temple of a tree god of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T30; see figure 96):<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Starting from October 12 each year, people would bring their child suffering bad health here to worship the big tree and ask it to adopt their child. The tree is referred to as Shu Wang Kung (The Master King of Big Tree). The tree is warded with brick walls, and under it is an altar for incense burning. The adoption ceremony includes the signing of an adoption agreement. And people have to pay NT$ 200 as deed tax. The deed itself is a paper card of 26.5 x <st1:chmetcnv unitname="cm" sourcevalue="19.5" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">19.5 cm</st1:chmetcnv> with four of its corners printed with Chinese character "Ho Chia <st1:place st="on">Ping</st1:place> An", meaning that "May all the members of the family live in peace and Harmony". ... Each deed is given with a serial number, and when completed by the clerk of the temple, is then placed upon a table. When the evening comes, a red capped priest would read them one by one before they are burnt, a final touch indicating that the adoption is formally constituted. In the process of the ceremony, parents are required to have the "Kuan Tai", a coin threaded with a red string, given free by the temple, to wear on the chest of the kid to symbolise that Shu Wang Kung from now on will be with the child all the time. Once adopted, the child is required to come back during the four-day birthday of Shu Wang Kung and shall have the Kuan Tai replaced by a new one. The replaced ones shall be hung on the fence encircling the tree. The practice goes on year by year until the child grows up an adult. Over the years, the countless Kuan Tai have been placed all over the place around the tree. It is indeed an amazing scene (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:5).(note.8) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, most ceremonies of nominal adoption I observed were as simple as I previously described and without any certificate (the Adoption Agreement) or the assistance of a priest.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Stone God and the Tree God who have become the nominal parent must be worshipped with offerings of incense, spirit money and food regularly, especially at the deity's birthday. On that day, the red silk thread which hangs the amulet must be taken off to be renewed with a new silk thread. Again the amulet with new thread is passed over the incense burner and worn on the neck of the child. The practice is called "Uan-kuin (Renewing the Amulet)". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, the relationship of nominal adoption lasts, theoretically at least, until the age of sixteen, that is, to adulthood according to Chinese culture. The child must go to her/his nominal parent's temple at its birthday and thank the deity for her/his protection over the sixteen years and return the amulet in front of the deity. The custom is called "Thui-kuin (Taking off the Amulet)" (cf. Topley 1974:243; Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="66" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">66f</st1:chmetcnv>). (note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">If the child's nominal parent is "the Seven Star goddess" ("Chhit-niu-ma") instead of the Stone God or the Tree God, a rite called "Leaving the House of the Seven Star goddess" is to be performed in addition to the "wearing the amulet".<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">... offerings are made of daphenes, cockscomb, white jasmine, tree orchids, balsam flowers, and other sweet- scented blossoms. Besides these are offered fruits, white flour, common flowers, glutinous rice mixed with hemp oil, wine and chicken, various types of meat, and strangely enough, lipstick. If there are adults in the family, during an impressive ceremony special offerings are made of Chang, noodles and a "chhit-niu-ma pavilion" -an effigy made of paper, over two feet high, to represent the goddess' home. After the ceremony the family burns gold money, and money on which is printed the picture of clothes; at the same time the paper pavilion is set aflame, a catastrophe surely to anyone appreciative of the construction's intricacy and attention to detail! (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="67" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">67f</st1:chmetcnv>) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The observance in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Fuzhou</st1:place></st1:city> is also noteworthy. The harvest festival, celebrated from the eleventh to the fifteen day of the eighth lunar month, is an occasion for people worship the Seven Star Goddess. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">A four sided rice measure with some rice in the bottom is placed on a table in the front of the reception room or in the open court. In it are put ten pairs of chopsticks and images which represent the children of the family. These are about six inches to a foot high, often consisting of a stick of wood with the features painted on it. If the child dies they are placed in the coffin. After the age of sixteen these images are discarded. If the family is in good circumstances a priest is invited to recite incantations. At a certain point in the ceremony the head of the family and the children kneel and worship before this altar. This will prevent them from succumbing to disease, and will ensure long life. Congee made of the rice in the bottom of the measure prolongs life (Hodous 1929:179-80). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The rite of "Leaving the House of the Seven Star Goddess", discarding a stick of images in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Fuzhou</st1:place></st1:city>, and "Taking off the Amulet," all reflect the fact that from that time on the child has reached adulthood, thus leaving the deity's intimate protection. The rite can also be regarded as a puberty rite in Chinese society. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">IV. Why They are Favoured as Nominal Parents:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">According to analyses by certain field researchers (Feuchtwang 1974b; Wolf 1974), the supernatural world in Chinese popular religion is divided into three categories, that is, gods, ancestors and ghosts. Moreover, because the supernatural world is anthropomorphised as we said in Chapter Four, the category of gods is arranged in a bureaucratic structure. Although the bureaucratic structure differs according to the period and viewpoints of the worshippers, people generally agree that the bureaucratic hierarchy can be divided into three levels: the higher-ranking, the middle-ranking and the lower-ranking. (note.10)In various ritual practices and myths it is depicted as a bureaucratic organisation similar to that of the Chinese imperial government (Cohen 1987:291), despite the latter's demise more than eighty years ago. For example, the Jade Emperor and Emperor Guan and Hian-ten Emperor, Guanyin (the Goddess of Mercy), the Granny, the Royal Lords, and the Eternal Mother are bureaucratically very powerful and are classified as higher- ranking (cf. Yu Chun-fang: 1990). They were apotheosised and elevated because of their ethics or morality (cf. Wolf 1974:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="140" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">140f</st1:chmetcnv>). Obviously, the elevation of them could not have occurred without state and the elite intervention (cf. Watson 1985:323). The Near Water Goddess, the Bed Goddess and the Seven- star Goddess and others belong to the middle-rank. The Tiger God, the Tree Deities, the Land Deities, the Toilet Deity and Stone Deities are in the lower-ranking classification (cf. Ahern 1985:281-2). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Because they are believed to have great protective power, most higher-ranking deities nominally adopt children. Once a child is adopted by a higher-ranking god, a sack containing a talisman, a bit of incense ash, and/or a picture of the god serving together as an amulet is hung on red silk thread which should be worn on the child's neck. However, although belonging to the middle-ranking class, some goddesses are sometimes preferred by people as nominal parents. I hypothesise that the maternal nature of these goddesses overcomes the importance of the bureaucratic hierarchy as a determining factor. The fact that the Earth Mother, the Granny, the Near Water Goddess, the Bed Goddess and the Seven-star Goddess and others adopt innumerable nominal children proves my hypothesis.(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The deities classified as lower-ranking, such as the Tiger God, the Land Deities, the Toilet Deity, since they are considered as having only little power, rarely have any nominal children. Why, then, are the Stone and Tree God, despite belonging to the lower-ranks, widely favoured as nominal parents? I have collected three different reasons from my field interviews. First, I was told that it is because people believe the natural objects have special protective power over children; that is, they are, according to Chinese tradition, functionally believed to be guardians of children (cf. Graham 1936:60). The second reason is that people believe that the stones and trees are so physically strong that people hope their children might grow as strong as them. In other words, people have the notion that the strength of the bodies of the nominal parents will also be extended to their nominal children. Eberhard relates some similar cults in <st1:place st="on">South China</st1:place> (1970:21-23); the believers there also hope that the nominal children can be as strong as the tree deities. Furthermore, Yuan Chang-rue's field research (1993:4) in <st1:place st="on">South Taiwan</st1:place> also confirms the idea.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The third reason is somewhat different from the previous two. I was told that in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> Hakka people believe that any "fundamentally weak" child is susceptible to dying, unless its parent/s take him/her to be adopted. The adoption can be real or only nominal. If it is nominal, a tree, because it is easy to find, is preferred. When the child's parent chooses a proper tree, he/she ties a red silk thread on the trunk or a branch of the tree and names it the nominal parent of his/her child. Thus, people believe that the child will grow up healthily and the tree will die very soon; it dies for its nominal child. That is, it serves as the scapegoat of the child. For this reason, the tree that people choose cannot be too small to bear the child's unfortunate destiny. Therefore, any big tree is susceptible to becoming the nominal parent. If it does not die, people will think it possesses a magical power and deify it. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">V. Why Some are not Favoured as Nominal Parents:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Among the 61 stone deities under this study, 35 deities do not nominally adopt children. Among the 39 tree deities under study here, 20 deities do not nominally adopt children. I find that there are at least five factors according to which these deities do not nominally adopt children. The first factor is that some are newly apotheosised.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In chapter Five, I argue that trees that grow giant and are located beside popular temples are susceptible to deification. The Tree God of Tho.-sian Ward (#T15; see figure 80); the Tree God of Sin-hong Ward (#T17; see figure 82); the Tree God of Khe- te (#T21; see figure 87); and the Tree God of Chheng-bek Ward (#T32; see figure 98) are all newly deified because they have grown giant in recent decades. The stone Turtle of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Ken-ki Road</st1:address></st1:street> (#S56; see figure 61), because of the unusual appearance, and because it has been found in recent decades, has also been newly deified. Moreover, since the prevalence of the Lottery gambling in recent decades, and the Stone and Tree deities have become patron deities of gambling, the Stone God of Ho-peng Ward (#S15; see figure 15); the stone Granny of Ho-peng Ward (#S16; see figure 16); the Stone God of Khe-te Hamlet (#S34; see figure 36); the Tree God of Kim-bin Ward (#T6; see figure 71); and the Tree God of So.-o Urban-town (#T10; see figure 75) are all deified by gamblers. In spite of being deified, because the religious custom that the Stone and Tree Deities nominally adopt unfortunate children has declined in these decades, these newly deified stones and trees do not serve as nominal parents.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The second reason some stone and tree deities take no nominal adoption is that they are located beside deities which are popular for adopting children. A typical example is the Stone Grandfather of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Biau-liek</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S3). The deity is the associate god of the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2) which is prestigious for adopting children. Although the Stone Grandfather is set beside the Stone Mother as a couple, he does not take any nominal children. I was told that it is because it is enough to be nominally adopted by the Stone Goddess and the Stone Grandfather is only her associate god. Similarly, The Tree God of <st1:placename st="on">Uan-lim</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype> (#T1; see figure 66) is worshipped beside the Stone Buddha of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Uan-lim</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S5; see figure 5); the Banyan God of Sion-lim Ward (#T18; see figure 83) is worshipped beside the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35); the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104) is worshipped beside the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63), so they do not adopt any children. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The third factor is that some stone and tree deities are connected with "negative energy" (Yin). As I have mentioned in Chapter Two, at least since the late Zhou period (fourth century BCE.), Chinese have believed that there are two opposing but interrelated active energies in the world (cf. Paper 1990:27). Ideally, the positive and negative energies are not necessarily good-evil; both are valuable and necessary aspects of the unity of nature. In other words, they are opposites, but not opponents. They blend into one another. They are the alternating aspects of nature.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, in the practice of Chinese popular religion, the "positive energy" symbolises "kindly" and the "negative energy" symbolises "spooky". For instance, the Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Chhau-lian Lane</st1:address></st1:street> (#T25; see figure 91) is worshipped with a small censer beside a small Tai-chiong-ia (the enshrined posthumous bones, a kind of responsive deity) temple. Tai-chiong-ia is traditionally regarded as a spirit with heavy negative energy and is thus rather spooky. Therefore, only a few people on some specific occasions access the place and worship the tree and Tai-chiong- ia. I think that because villagers avoid coming to the site, the tree is not asked for nominal adoption. The second example is the Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Lam-kian West Road</st1:address></st1:street> (#T34; see figure 101). I was told that originally people living in the area collected unworshipped bones and deposited them beneath a big tree to worship. Later on, after the tree and bones performed some miracles, people initiated a temple of the Land God to worship. Ten years ago, they built a smaller temple beside the Land God temple and engraved a tablet for the Tree God. However, it does not take nominal children. I think it is because people are afraid of the bones beneath the tree which is connected with the negative energy. Moreover, the stone Good Brothers of Bah-tau Hamlet (#S22; see figure 23); the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26); the stone Good Brothers of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S26; see figure 28) and the Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62) are themselves spirits with the negative energy, it is quite natural that they are not asked to adopt children.(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The fourth reason some stone and tree deities are not suitable parents for nominal adoption is that they are treated as the Land God.(note.13) In Chapter Three I already explained that the Land God can be represented by a stone or tree and without any statue. He is traditionally regarded as the guardian of land, of community, of wandering souls. As a minor deity with little power or as the God identified as the Earth Governor (Houtu; see figure 112) who is heavily involved with wandering souls which I mentioned in Chapter Three, he is regarded as not suitable for being a nominal parent. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The last factor influencing the lack of nominal adoption by some stone and tree deities is that they are too marginal to be found by the public. For example, more than 100 years ago, a resident of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tek-san</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> of Lam-tau County dug a foundation for his new house and unearthed a stone with human appearance. The villagers considered the stone divine and deified it as the Stone God of <st1:placename st="on">Tek-san</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype> (#S17; see figure 17) and worship him as an associate god in Chi-lam Kiong (literally, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Purple</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">South</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Palace</st1:placetype></st1:place>). In spite of the fact that the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">God</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> has thousands of devotees, they seem not pay any attention to the Stone God which is set in a marginal place. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The Divine Stone of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Giong-tek Boulevard</st1:address></st1:street> (#S41; see figure 43) is located beside the beginning (and the end) of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Giong-tek Highway</st1:address></st1:street>, a main road leading to the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Grass</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype></st1:place>. The site is often covered with grasses and only a few neighbours of the stone know the location. Therefore nobody asks for nominal adoption. The Tree God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Lo-chui</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T24; see figure 90) has been venerated for more than 100 years. Only a few local residents worship it with some incense sticks. Naturally, it has no nominal children. The Grandfather of the Ancient <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">An-lam District</st1:placename></st1:place> (#S40; see figure 42) is worshipped on the family altar of Mr. Phuan Hong-guan, a Chinese pharmacist. Only his friends and neighbours know that there is a stone deity here and thus it adopts no children. The Elderly Tree of Pak-li Rural-town (#T36; see figure 103); is located in a small hamlet consisting of about four households. Only a few people know that the tree is worshipped. Therefore, it adopts no children.(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">VI. Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">So far, we may distinguish three general types of guardians of children: 1, the higher-ranking deities, 2, goddesses and fortunate women, and 3, the Stone God and the Tree God. The reason that the higher-ranking deities are favoured to be guardians is because they are bureaucratically powerful; they can easily protect children from any harm of malicious spirits. Goddesses and fortunate women, on the other hand, are favoured because of their maternal nature. What, then, can be the reason that the Stone God and the Tree God, who belong to the lower ranks and thus have little hierarchical power, are widely favoured as nominal parents? Because people hope their children might grow as strong as the Stone God and as big as the Tree God, or they can bear the children's unfortunate destiny. I assert that the natural objects can serve children, at least, because their intrinsic appearance of physical strength, no matter whether they were orignially deified because of performing miracles or of unusual origins etc. (see also Appendix).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">This view is further supported by a comparison of the different patterns of the amulets worn by adopted children. We notice that in order to engage her/his protection, the higher- ranking gods usually bestow a sack containing a talisman, a bit of incense ash, and/or a picture of the god serving as an amulet hung on red silk thread. The amulets given by other deities might be an ancient coin, silver medallion, or luck medallion hung on a red silk thread. I was told that the reason that coins of imperial times are preferred for such amulets is the coins are engraved with the eras of the emperors which themselves are authoritative and thus can reinforce the power to ward off evil spirits. Recently, since imperial coins are no longer issued, silver medallions or luck medallions prepared by some well- financed temples are used instead.(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, the amulets of the Stone God and the Tree God are unique. I was told by the believers of the Stone God that it is better to fasten a small stone picked from the surroundings of the Stone God together with the sack, ancient coin, silver medallion, or luck medallion hung on a red silk thread. The amulet of the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 78) is hung, in addition to an ancient coin, with a small branch taken from the divine tree. Yuan Chang-rue (1993:10) also reports that in some places of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, if the nominal parent is the Tree God, a leaf of the divine tree is hung together with the coin as an amulet. Furthermore, Eberhard (1970:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="21" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">21f</st1:chmetcnv>) records that the bark of a divine tree serving as a "adopted father" in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> was removed in many places to put in the children's clothes to make them stronger. In brief, although with little hierarchical power, the deities can still serve children with intrinsic appearance of physical strength which is direct and concrete.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In addition, from the three main reasons that these natural objects are favoured to be nominal parents and the five factors that keep them from adopting children, we realise that there is a division of labour, or a functional differentiation, among popular deities. Each deity, theoretically, has designated a specific duty or function for the purpose of helping and assisting people and, thus, is not omnipotent.(note.16) The Land God, for instance, because not designated for the specific duty of adopting children, is not favoured for the nominal adoption. On the contrary, the Stone God and the Tree God, who are traditionally regarded as guardians of children, are favoured as nominal parents. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, I think the Stone God who is functionally divided into nominal adoption is not accidental. As described in Chapter Two, the connection of divine stones with fertilizing capability had been in existence from ancient times. We see the Stone Monkey was said to be developed out of a stone egg impregnated by Heaven and Earth. Besides, there are many life-giving stones recorded in Chinese classics. In modern Hong Kong Island and the New Territories there are stones still worshipped by engaged couples for the perpetuation of the clan, that is, for birth-giving. In the field work of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, I did not find any stone with obvious life-giving function. But the stones with nominal adoption might be a functional extension of the life-giving stones. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yuan Chang-rue translates the Taiwanese term "kin-ki-jiok" physically weak (1993:4). However, I think the term "kin-ki-jiok" not only means physically weak, but also spiritually weak. Therefore, I literally translate it "fundamentally weak". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chinese believe that the span of each human life is decided by "S- bing (the Overseer or Controller of Fate)". For details of the belief, please see Robert Chard (1993). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, the establishment of nominal kin relationships is not always passive; it may also be established out of gratitude to a deity and/or a person who helped a child recover from illness (see also Potter 1974). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Besides fortunate women, Topley (1974:244) tells us that, in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Canton</st1:place></st1:city>, devout vegetarians, usually women who are childless and may be rich or poor, are also considered suitable for nominal adoption. It is said that they can improve the adopted child's destiny. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Maspero (1981:118) reports to us that in some places of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Bed God and Goddess are also considered as guardians of children. Young married people, upon entering the marriage chamber, prostrate themselves in honour to the pair of deities. It is ordinarily the bed itself which is addressed; but sometimes a picture is hung up, in which they are represented sitting side by side, in official costume, with their tablets of rank in their hands. The young couple, especially when with children, worship the guardians with cakes, fruits, tea and wine on the last day of the year, or on the day after the full moon in the first month, the day after the Lantern Festival. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#S1; see figure 1); the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2); the Stone Goddess of Lek-biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4); the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5); see figure 5; the Stone God of Sia-thau Rural- town (#S6; see figure 6); the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7); the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8); the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9); the Emperor of Six Areas of Tan-suan Rural-town (#S10); the Stone God of Jin-ho Village (#S11; see figure 11); the Stone God of Kang-khau Ward (#S14; see figure 14); the Stone God of Ka-lo Ward (#S18; see figure 18); the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20); the Stone God of Sion- lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35); the Stone God of Ka-ho Ward (#S36; see figure 38); the Stone God of Hi-ti Rural-town (#S37; see figure 39); the Literate and Militant Emperor of Po.-ho Village (#S38; see figure 40); the Grandfather of Yellow Stone of Lai-o. District (#S43; see figure 45); the Stone God of Pe-hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47); the stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48); the Wind-moving Stone of Bak-sa District (#S48; see figure 51); the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54); the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57); the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60); the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63); the Stone God of <st1:placename st="on">Tang-si</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype> (#S59); the Stone God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Hong-guan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S60; see figure 64) (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Pine King of Chong-ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67); the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68); the Tree God of Thau-hun Village (#T4; see figure 69); the Tree God of Siong-tek Village (#T5; see figure 70); the Tree God and Goddess of Kui-sin Village (#T7; see figure 72); the Tree God of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73); the Tree God of Tiong-san Ward (#T9; see figure 74); the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78); the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 79); the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 84); the Tree God of Cho.- su Lane (#T22; see figure 88); the Tree God of Uan-chip Road (#T23; see figure 89); the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92); the Banyan Tree Goddess of Thong-liang Village (#T27; see figure 93); the Tree God of Chap-ji Field (#T28; see figure 94); the Tree King of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T30; see figure 96); the Tree God of Po-san Ward (#T31; see figure 97); the Tree God of Lam-huin Ward (#T37); the Tree King of Tai-li Rural-town (#T39; see figure 105) (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In addition, he (1993:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="4" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">4f</st1:chmetcnv>) also translates the contents of an "Adoption Agreement" as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Adoption Agreement:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Where at address of (No.), Lane (No.), Sec. (No.) of certain Hsiang of certain Hsien, Taiwan, R.O.C., your humble disciple does hereby pray with the utmost sincerity and devotion that my son/daughter who has been since his/her birth suffering poor health, now I am asking you, the merciful Shu Wang Kung, to accept him/her as your adopted son/daughter, from now on may your blessings be the guarantee of his/her health, so he/she could grow up always in peace without suffering any attacks by the diseases, and your great favour shall be always remembered by it. (Date of the prayer made.) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Not only in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>, this practice can also be found in Jiangshu and <st1:state st="on">Anhui</st1:state> provinces described by Henry Dore (1987) who worked as a missionary for over twenty years there and be found in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Canton</st1:place></st1:city> reported by J. M. Potter (1974). It can be said that this practice is universal in the Chinese world. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">The actual hierarchy is not important in practice, since religious activity is focused upon a deity's local cult and the deities are seldom pitted against each other (Cohen 1987:291). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, most venerated natural objects are considered as male. However, three divine stones are worshipped as goddesses and adopt children. I think that it is also based on the notion of maternal nature so that they are treated as female. They are: the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#S1; see figure 1), the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2) and the Stone Goddess of Lek-biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92) is an exception. Even though located beside a Tai-chiong-ia temple, the Tree God adopts many children. I believe that this Tree God located beside a spooky spirit with negative energy can be worshipped as a nominal parent is because he performed a great miracle (cf. Chapter Four). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, the stone Land God of Pei-go Village (#S12; see figure 12); the stone Land God of Tua-un Village (#S13; see figure 13); the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22); the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25); the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27); the stone Land God of E-huan Field (#S28; see figure 30); the stone Land God of Sin-hong Ward (#S29; see figure 31); the stone Land God of Chui- bue-a Hamlet (#S30; see figure 32); the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33); the stone Land God of Phek-chiu Ward (#S32; see figure 34); the stone Land God of Chhien-kah Ward (#S39; see figure 41); the stone Land God of Tong-an Street (#S42; see figure 44); the stone Land God of Tua-kham Village (#S51; see figure 55); the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58); the stone Land God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S54; see figure 59); the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65); the tree Land God of In-suan Street (#T11; see figure 76); the tree Land God of the East Gate (#T12; see figure 77) and the tree Land God of Pak-li Rural-town (#T35; see figure 102) do not adopt children (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">However, I am still not sure why the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37); the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam-teng Hamlet (#S49; see figure 52); the General Chu of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T29; see figure 95); the Stone God of Tiong-guan Ward (#S19; see figure 19); the Stone God of Sin-hong Ward (#S27; see figure 29); the White Crane Immortal of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S46; see figure 49); the Stone God of Pak-tau District (#S47; see figure 50); the Beech Grandfather of Pak-si Ward (#T16; see figure 81); the Tree God of Gue-bai Hamlet (#T20; see figure 86); and the Autumn Maple God of Lam-kang District (#T33; see figure 99) do not adopt children (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yuan Chang-rue (1993:13) says that in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> there are several ancient coins hung on a red silk thread. Based on field work of Jiangshu and <st1:state st="on">Anhui</st1:state> provinces in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, Dore (1987:29) reports that the coin can be one or several. However, the I have never seen more than one coin hung on a red silk thread in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is probably because nowadays ancient coins are less available. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">Therefore, the idea that a deity is sometimes powerless for something is accepted without surprise (Wolf 1974:145; Tsai Wen-hui 1979:27). </span></b></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-9932752105522799402008-02-08T03:00:00.000-08:002008-02-17T03:02:33.926-08:00Chapter Seven: Lottery Gambling and The Three Deities<span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I. Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Chapters Six, I explained that the Stone and Tree Gods are traditionally considered as the guardians of children. We also found that some of the stones and trees which have been newly deified in these three decades, unlike these with older traditions, do not serve as the nominal parents of unhealthy children. Instead, they are treated as the patron deities of gambling. Moreover, since the rapid social changes in these decades, more and more deities, which were the patron deities of children, have been transforming into the patron deities of gambling. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The influences of the rapid social changes on religions of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> have been studied by scholars (e.g. Katz 1992:214; Jordan 1994:138), although their conclusions are various. However, the most important influences on the transformation of roles of the divine stones and trees are, first of all, general changes in government policy, and second, the prevalence of an illicit lottery gambling called "Everybody Happy" (Dajiale, I shall call it "the Lottery" hereinafter) in 1980s. (note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">To understand these changes, I first introduce the coming of the Nationalist Government to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 1949. It installed some of its two million followers in the majority of positions in the education system, in the top ranks of the national government and in the military and, therefore, caused rapid social change on the island. I select two important policies launched by the new Government which I believe have had the greatest effect on the deities under this study. They are: 1, Land Reform; and 2, the improved medical system. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Next, I depict the divination instruments used by the Bettors to predict the winning numbers of the Lottery. Then I portray the patron deities of the Lottery such as the Good Brothers, Jigong, the Third Prince and the Stone/Tree God. The results of my studies of the divination instruments and the patron deities for the Lottery reveal that the Bettors have an anti-authoritarian tendency. Furthermore, I analyze why in some places the deities get involved in the Lottery while in some places they do not. I conclude that the prevalence of the Lottery, together with the transformation of roles of the deities, can be read, to a certain degree, as a resistance against or even subversion of the contemporary situation of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">II. New Dynasty and New Policies:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In 1949, when the Chinese Communists defeated the Nationalist armies on the mainland and assumed control of <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>, the Nationalist Government soon established its capital in <st1:city st="on">Taipei</st1:city> and a new wave of nearly two million immigrants arrived in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> with the Government. The immigration of the Nationalist Government and its followers installed a series of new policies once they took firm control of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. I shall here introduce two important policies which I believe have had the greatest effect on the transformation of the three deities I studied. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The first important policy by the new Government engendering the transformation is the Land Reform, with rent reduction, the distribution of public lands, and the land-to-the-tiller policies being its main components. The traditional landlords, mostly Taiwanese, were compelled to sell land. Hence the Land Reform programme both directly and indirectly eliminated the landowner class and the landlord-tenant relationship as part of the social system, thus eradicating the feudal social structure in rural <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. These policies produced a number of salient social changes (cf. Copper 1990:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="42" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">42f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As a result of these reforms, the pace of urbanization in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> has been among the most rapid in the world in the last three decades. Actually, few areas of the world have changed as much as <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> in these years. Its transition from an agricultural colony of a militant Japanese Empire to a modern industrial state with more than thrice its war-time population has affected all aspects of life in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, producing ever new manifestations of what Chinese civilization is like. So extreme have these changes been as to inspire recent books with titles that speak of a <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> "Revolution" or even "Miracle" (cf. <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Jordan</st1:place></st1:country-region> 1994:137).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In 1920 only four percent of the people lived in cities with a population of more than a hundred thousand. By the early 1970s and into the 1980s, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> urbanised even faster. Its population was two-thirds urban. Today three-fourths of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s population is defined either as urban or suburban, although process has slightly slowed in recent years (cf. Copper 1990:43).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The sudden urbanisation had a considerable effect on society. For instance, the family system changed dramatically. Family ties and the authority of family heads decreased in importance. Young men and women sought further independence from parents. Relationships between men and women changed, as did the practice of filial piety. The birthrate dropped. Rural society became much more transient. These change also fostered greater job specialisation and broader opportunities, engendered social equality and reduced social and class barriers, and vastly increased cultural opportunities. We can see the roads are so crammed with vehicles that they can hardly move. Video game halls and prostitutes seem to be an established way of life. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Further on the negative side, it caused social alienation, raised crime rates, weakened the family, and created many new social problems (Copper 1990:43). For example, younger people of the rural areas have to seek jobs in the cities. The income of those who are still actively engaged in agriculture is generally supplemented by nonagricultural wage earnings such as wage labouring, cottage industry knitting, tea processing etc. in nearby factories, or by the younger generation working in the cities (Harrell 1981:127).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The second important policy that influences the religious transformation is the improved medical system. Indeed, the improvement of the medical system has had a drastic effect upon the worship of these deities. For one thing, public and private hospitals have grown up throughout <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, making health care more widely available. In addition, the licensing standards for physicians, both modern-style and traditional, have constantly risen over the past forty years, much increasing the reliability of medical service. Taiwan has also benefited from the general improvement in world medical knowledge over this period, and that too has made medicine more reliable (Jordan 1994:147-48). As a result, the population is physically healthier than it was a half-century ago, and children have less urgent need for the nominal adoption than previously. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">III. Transformation of the Three Deities:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In his study of the Royal Lords, Katz (1992:214) finds that, even though under the impacts of social change and the improved medical system, the Royal Lords remain popular because they have broadened their functions so that they do more than cure disease.(note.2) Indeed, under the pressures of rapid social change, popular religion remains popular. Many ruined temples were rebuilt, and ceremonial parades and pilgrimages became very prevalent (Chiu 1987:254; Katz 1992:214; Jordan 1994:139). Sangren (1987:92) argues that the popularity serves as a symbol of Taiwanese identity based on the shared historical and cultural experiences which differentiates them from the mainlanders who immigrated to the island after the <st1:place st="on">Second World</st1:place> War.(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to Hill Gates (1982 unpub., qtd. in Weller 1985:59), the revival has been funded primarily by a Taiwanese traditional middle class. She argues that these people spend money on religion as a way of gaining status and investing in the local community. This argument is similar to that of James Watson (1985:293-323) which I summarised in Chapter Four. The difference between Watson's observation and the revival of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s popular religion is that the latter, taking place after the demise of the imperial central power, is not supported by the state. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, these deities under study here are not "approved" and thus do not interest the local leaders who wish to "gentrify" themselves, nor were any sectarian institutions formed to foster these deities. Can, then, the worship of these deities survive under the pressure of the rapid social changes? The answer is positive. Even though the traditional roles that these deities were serving as the guardians of children have been gradually neglected due to the improvement of the medical system, they have been partially transformed into the patron deities of gambling. According to my field research, 28 stone deities are obviously involved in the Lottery gambling.(note.4) Besides, 19 tree deities are clearly connected with the Lottery. (note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The organisation of lottery gambling was a means by which the Japanese colonial government (1895-1945 CE.) raised funds in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The Nationalist Government also held lotteries for 37 years until the ban in 1988 and had raised about NT 29.3 billion for its coffers (Ta Yu-shan 1993:1). The lottery issued by the Nationalist Government was encouraged by officials and scholars who claimed that it could provide extra revenues which the government has been unable to generate through raising taxes and could help promote welfare and offer employment opportunities for the handicapped (Ta Yu-shan 1993:1).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Why then, did the Nationalist Government ban the official lottery in 1988? The most vital reason is the prevalence of the illegal "Everybody Happy" Lottery which the winning numbers is based on the official lottery. Actually, the impact of the illegal Lottery has been massive and is one of most important cultural phenomena in these years (Hu Taili 1991:125). Several years ago, when it came to its apex, on the dates the result of the Lottery were announced, "the streets were almost empty like in times of air raids" (Hu Taili 1991:132) and the overload on the telephone system routinely paralyzed inter-city communications (Davis 1992:426). Some observers, therefore, said that the Lottery's Bettors (I shall call them "the Bettors" hereinafter) were running crazy.(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Among these above mentioned stone/tree deities, the Stone God of Ho-peng Ward (#S15; see figure 15), the stone Granny of Ho-peng Ward (#S16; see figure 16), the Stone God of Khe-te Hamlet (#S34; see figure 36) and the Stone God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tang-si</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S59) are deities apotheosised by the Bettors. We can find incense trays put publicly on the altars of the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33), the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37), the stone Turtle of Ken-ki Road (#S56) and the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 85). On the altars of the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57) and the Tree God of So.-o Urban-town (#T10; see figure 75), we can find a lot of cigarette butts used as incense or as offerings.(note.7) I was told that the winning numbers of the lottery can be sometimes revealed on the face of the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63) and on the incense ash of the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65). I was also told that the Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62) should appear and reveal the winning numbers on the dreams of those who sleep beside it. Moreover, when I came to visit them for the first time, the neighbours of the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25), the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26), the Tree God of Kim-bin Ward (#T6; see figure 71), the Tree God of Lam-huin Ward (#T37) and the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104) all mistook me for a gambler who was trying to discover the winning numbers. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">My field record was verified by the reports of various field researchers. According to Hu Taili (1991:133-52), the Good Brothers, the Stone God, the Third Prince, the Land God, Jigong (the Crazy Monk) are popular deities that the illicit lottery Bettors like to consult. According to Lin Mei-rong (1987:65), the Land God and the Tree God are connected with the illicit lottery Bettors. According to Yuan Chang-rue (1993:12), the Tree God is involved in the gambling divination. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I claim that the transformation is not only a religious response to modernity but also, to a certain degree, a resistance against the pressures on this worship. My claim can be supported by the analysis of the divination instruments the Bettors use and the deities they revere for predicting the winning numbers of the Lottery.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Gambling, like prostitution, is ancient, widespread, and widely disapproved in Chinese society as elsewhere in the world.(note.8) It flourishes, in spite of ethical taboo and legal sanction, as an institutionalised deviant pattern and as a form of crime in which the victims are willing accomplices (Paton 1917:163; Bergler 1958:229; Devereux 1968:53). (note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Gambling may be defined as a form of activity in which the parties involved, who are known as bettors or players, voluntarily engage to make the transfer of money or something else of value among themselves contingent upon the outcome of some future and uncertain event (Devereux 1968:53). Dealing with unpredictable and uncertain events, the Taiwanese lottery gamblers, similar to those of many other places in the world, are likely to turn to divination with the supernatural as a source of help to win the lottery.(note.10) They believe that through divination with the supernatural, deities will predict and reveal the winning numbers of the lottery to them so that they can bet and win. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">IV. Divination Instruments:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Divination is the method of discovering the personal, human significance of future, present or past events with the help of the supernatural. Instruments for divination with the supernatural in Chinese popular religion are many, and selection among them depends upon a number of factors, including the nature of the question to be put, the intricacy required in the response, the amount of money one is able to spend, the personnel involved in the manipulation and interpretation of the instruments and one's relations with these people, the usual mode of communication used by the supernatural agent one wishes to consult, and various other factors (cf. Jordan 1985:60). In theory, anything can be used to divine the meaning of events. It is very common to assign spontaneous and arbitrary meaning to signs or omens when one is deeply anxious about the outcome of a personal situation. But the cultural form of divinatory methods and signs is seldom entirely random: each one expresses a specific logic (Suesse 1987:375).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to Hu Taili, the commonest instruments of divination for the revealing of the winning numbers of the illicit lottery are through the Moon Blocks, divination verses, dream, incense tray, shamans and so on. Some even observe natural phenomena for hints (1991:133-52). Similarly, Yuan Chang-rue (1993:11) and Lin Mei-rong (1987:72) both report that the Bettors can get some hints from the incense tray put on the altar of the deities and from the ash of incense stick. In the following sections, I depict seven divination instruments which are usually used by the Lottery Bettors of my field sites. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, Moonblock Throwing:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Let us begin with the analysis of "throwing moonblocks" (pua-pei). Throwing moonblocks is the commonest divination practice used in the Chinese popular religion and is popular among gamblers. Most of the temples (or shrines) visited by me provide moonblocks for divination. The moonblocks (sometimes translated in English as moonboards or divination blocks) are the two pieces of bamboo root, each cut into the shape of a crescent moon, rounded on one surface and flat on the other (cf. Jordan 1985:61). The two pieces are mirror images of one another, and if the flat sides are placed against each other, the pair looks as though it were a single block of bamboo root. In divination these objects are held out upon the two palms, raised to the level of the forehead of the standing or kneeling worshipper, and allowed to drop on the floor. There are two positions in which each block can land: rounded side up or rounded side down. Therefore there are three combinations of positions: both blocks might land flat side downward, both might land rounded side downward, or each might land differently (Jordan 1985:61). This last combination is taken to indicate agreement by the deity with the proposition as stated, briefly a "yes" response. The question is typically presented in a murmured silent prayer and the blocks thrown and dropped. If they indicate an affirmative, they are thrown again. A validly affirmative reply requires three positive falls running, and the occurrence of a negative reply either requires the reconstruction of the question and another attempt, or requires that one give up (cf. Jordan 1985:62; Sangren 1987:55). Since this is the most secret divination practice, it is welcomed by the Bettors. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, Lot-sticks and Verse Drawing:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Sometimes, the Bettors go to temples where they can make use of the oracle verses (chhiam-si). On the altar or beside the altar there is a container of bamboo lot-sticks each bearing numbers from one to sixty or from one to one hundred. When divining, one shakes the container until a lot-stick falls out of the container. The lot-stick is then confirmed by the throwing of moonblocks. If it is a "yes" response, one goes to tear off a sheet of numbered paper usually displayed on a board at one side of a temple according to the numbered lot-stick. The paper contains an oracle verse of four lines which are difficult to interpret. In some large temples, a custodian who is also a ritual expert would be ready to interpret. If an expert is not available, one can still seek a standard answer by consulting the interpretation book kept beside the oracle verses (cf. Jordan 1985:64; Feuchtwang 1992:107). However, for some simple questions such as predicting the winning numbers or such, the Bettors usually seek the answer from the numbers of the lot-stick or by getting a clue from the quick answers printed on bottom the verse paper etc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, Chair Writing:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It is said that the divination of a specific chair (Kio-a, I shall call it "the divination chair" hereinafter) is effective for predicting the winning numbers of the Lottery. The divination chair is a small wooden seat, usually about twenty centimeters on a side and about twenty-five or thirty centimeters high at the back. Divination by means of the small chair is accomplished by two men holding it by its legs in an upright position before an altar while incense is burned and the relevant supernatural agent is requested to descend into the divination chair. His descent is indicated by the onset of motion in the chair, particularly bouncing motion. At length the divination chair leans forward and with an ear-splitting crash descends upon a table, prepared in advance with a protecting surface of wood or burlap, and traces winning numbers upon it. These winning numbers are considered to be revealed by the possessing deity. The numbers traced upon the table are usually unclear, and a good deal of study of each number is necessary before it is correctly understood. Sometimes one even has to ask the deity to retrace the numbers three or four times before an acceptable interpretation is finally proposed by the person in charge of reading what the divination chair traces (cf. Jordan 1985:65-6). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, Consulting Shamans:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Hollo term for the shaman is "tang-ki" or "ki-tong", meaning "divining youth." Shamanism is a worldwide religious phenomenon which is characterised by possession trance (Kahoe 1988:38). Observations and interviews by scholars confirm that in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> though the shamans' spirits sometimes descend or ascend, they are mostly controlled or possessed by gods. In other words, deity possession characterises Taiwanese shamanism. Generally, we find shamans attached to family altars or certain temples, especially small, private temples. Although the most important work of the Taiwanese shamans is healing (Yeh Kaofang 1987:39- 40), they can be the instructors of many concerns from marriage, moving, child birth, the properness of making trips and of course predicting the winning numbers of the Lottery. Their instructions, with all their potential flexibility, were and are actively discouraged by the elites from time to time. The government, which frequently accuses shamans of fakery and extortion, is taking gradual steps to outlaw them (Weller 1982:468).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">5, Incense Tray Imprinting:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Divination using an incense tray is not traditional in Chinese popular religion. However, a lot of Lottery Bettors like to predict the winning numbers in this way. The incense tray is a shallow tray for holding some sort of powder (usually incense or sometimes sand) which is leveled to make a flat surface. For divination, the tray is put on the altar overnight. It is said that on the next day the Bettors can see the winning numbers on the surface of the tray if they inspect it piously. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">6, Dream Inducing:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Exegesis of dreams is one of the most ancient functions in Chinese history. People have always believed that dreams give clues to the predicting the future, and, suggesting ways to solve problems (Thompson 1988:73). Several instances in the Zuozhuan testify to the belief that the future might be known through dreams, and in the Shijing we read that Wuding, one of the kings of the Shang Dynasty, dreamed that a good assistant was given to him who should speak on his behalf. He described the appearance of the person whom he had seen in his dream and, after a search throughout the land, Yue was found who corresponded to the description and was in consequence made chief minister (Bonsall 1934:26).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Interpretations of dreams to the Taiwanese are also a rich source of omens, both auspicious and unpropitious. There are many books of this kind in local bookstores. However, the recognised, foretellable dreams come in such a variety of guises that the ordinary citizen usually goes to a temple and enquires of a priest about the category into which a dream should be placed (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="147" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">147f</st1:chmetcnv>). Thompson (1988:74) calls the phenomenon the "divination of induced dreams".<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">When a Taiwanese feels the necessity to invite a god to appear in his/her dreams and answer a question, give the solution to a problem, or explain why a favour will or will not be carried out, two temples are conveniently visited in the Taipei area. The first is a huge complex that has lately been developing around the original Mazu temple in Guandu, an hour bus trip away from central <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>. The second one is the famous <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Guidance</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place>, now a century old, on the mountain above the suburb of Muzha, which is likewise being developed into an extensive religious and recreational complex. In both of these large temples there are facilities for overnighters, the people seeking revelations through dreams. According to the booklet published by the Guidance Temple, that temple can accommodate "several thousands" of these visitors at a time, providing them with free food and a place to sleep; and the Guandu "dream hostel" looks to be every bit as spacious. One sees, then, that believers in dream divination must be quite numerous (Thompson 1988:76). The believer who wishes to have a personal dream visitation by the god of his choice will first of all burn incense at the temple, then set out a simple offering after which he worships the god and asks the question, details his problem or states his situation or his request. This completed, the worshipper then retires to a special room set aside for the use of believers who sleep there and await their god. It is said by the Taiwanese that any person who attempts this is certain to be rewarded by a dream visitation by the god which he has worshipped beforehand (Wei & Coutanceau 1976:154). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the divination of the winning numbers, the Bettors can set an offering and worship in front of his/her favourite deity and sleep beside the altar or at home awaiting the revelation of the deity. The Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62) is famous for revealing the numbers among the Bettors. Perhaps the dream may seem a more individualised or personalised response from the supernatural, so some people resort to dream divination as against other, more standard, methods. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">7, Intuitive Interpretation:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Of course, the divination instruments used by the Bettors to predict the winning numbers are not only limited to these. I was told that they can see the numbers from the face of the Stone God or from the ash of incense sticks offered to the patron deities of gambling. Some even just see natural phenomena or their own intuitions for the hints of winning numbers (cf. Hu Taili 1991:141). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Suesse (1987:375-79) distinguishes three general types of divination, based on indigenous meanings: those based on the immediate context when interpreted by the spiritual insight of the diviner (intuitive divination); those based on spirit manipulation (possession divination); and those reflecting the operation of impersonal laws within a coherent divine order (wisdom divination). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In many cultures extraordinary spiritual masters such as saints or gurus are often credited with insight of intuitive divination. Yet, some lay-people can also "see" or "know" reality or the future, though the reliability is not usually considered very great (Suesse 1987:376).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are many varieties of possession divination in which spiritual beings are said to communicate through intermediary agents. This type of divination can be subdivided into two subtypes: 1, possession of non-human agents and 2, possession of human agents. Possession of non-human agents consists of attending to the flight of birds, behaviour of quadrupeds, fish, insects, or reptiles, the arbitrary movements of heavenly bodies, fire, water, stone, by lot, by throwing dice which are thought to be seized by the gods or spirits and directed according to a code known to the diviner. Possession of human agents may be of several theoretical forms: prophetic inspiration, shamanistic ecstasy, mystical illuminations and visions, and mediumistic or oracular trance (Suesse 1987:377). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Wisdom divination in which the diviner decodes impersonal patterns of reality by temporal patterns in movements of heavenly bodies (astrology) by patterns in earth formations (geomancy) or through mathematical correspondences (numerology) must usually begin in court and priestly circles, for it depends on a cumulative effort of generations and a specialised learning of which, in most early civilizations, only centralised priesthoods are capable. Only after literacy and education have become general can the sagelike diviner detach himself from court circles and apply himself to individual and nonpolitical concerns. For example, the practice of scapulamantic divination was used in court circles of the ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> to consult the nature spirits and royal ancestors - and especially the celestial supreme being - concerning all significant state decisions (Suesse 1987:379). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">If we apply Suesse's typology to the divination instruments that the Bettors employ in predicting the winning numbers of the Lottery, we find that moonblock throwing, lot-sticks and verse drawing, divination chair writing, consulting shamans, incense tray imprinting, dream inducing, and intuitive interpretation all belong to possession divination.(note.11) This shows that the Bettors have an anti-authority tendency; that is, they rely neither on "intuitive divination" for which only the extraordinary spiritual masters are credited as reliable, nor on "wisdom divination" of which only the centralised priesthood in court are capable. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">V. Patron Deities of Gambling:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are some Chinese deities connected with gambling. There is even a patron deity of thieves (Cohen 1987:291). In spite of this, according to my field observation, the Good Brothers, the Stone and Tree Gods, the Third Prince, and the Crazy Monk are seriously involved in the Lottery. I believe that the involvement of these deities is not a coincidence. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, the Good Brothers:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Many field researchers (e.g. Harrell 1974:201; Weller 1985:46) have already noted that it has been a long tradition that the Good Brothers favour the gamblers and those who are engaged in illegal activity.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Those who die without descendants to worship them become ghosts. The unidentified bones which have been found in places such as on old battle sites or mass graves are inevitably treated as ghosts. Usually the kind-hearted local people around these sites will collect these bones together to enshrine them and worship them. Once worshipped, they become a sort of ghostly deity and get the euphemism "the Responsive Deities" (Iu-ing Gong) or "the Good Brothers" (Haoxiongdi). Since they are apotheosised not for their ethics or morality, they are not bound by ethics or morality. It is often thought better to ask these spirits for favours of an unethical and immoral nature than to take such requests to normal deities. Therefore, gamblers, fugitives, illicit lovers, people seeking revenge, and all other types who were engaged in illegal activity like to worship the Good Brothers (Harrell 1974:201). However, it is somewhat risky to ask a favour of the Good Brothers, since they are not bound to morality and ethics. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, Jigong:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">One of the deities involved in the Lottery is Jigong (the Crazy Monk). The Buddhist name of Jigong is Daoji but he is well- known by the name Che-gong to Taiwanese and Jigong to Chinese. Jigong (?-1209) was an eccentric Buddhist monk, who violated monastic regulations, for example, by drinking wine and eating meat. Despite his antinomian behaviour he was posthumously venerated by some of his lay contemporaries as a miracle worker (Shahar 1993:1) and by modern Taiwanese as a powerful god. Probably because of his antinomian behaviour that estranged him from the monastic establishment of his time, he is hardly mentioned in Song and Yuan Buddhist literature. Thus, we know little about the historical Jigong. As a fictional character and a god he is usually referred to as Jidian ("Crazy Ji") or Jigong (Shahar 1993:2-15). (note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The saint entertains his lay friends, whether of humble or high social standing with jokes, witty remarks, songs and poems. Shahar (1993:41) points out that spirit-mediums of the god in present-day <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> entertain their followers with ribald jokes. Yet his primary function is not that of a poet or entertainer, but of miracle worker in affairs ranging from healing to the administration of karmic retribution. His appearance and behaviour do not diminish in the least his religious efficacy (Shahar 1993:38). Indeed the association of humour with religious power has remained a primary characteristic of the saint. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In brief, even though the trickster is funny, his religious powers are never questioned (Shahar 1993:58) and, moreover, reinforce his popularity. When asked by Hu Taili (1991:152) as to why they worshipped the deity for the Lottery, the Bettors typically answered: "Because the Jigong is crazy, he is more likely to reveal the winning numbers." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, the Third Prince:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">One of the deities involving in the Lottery is the Third Prince. The name of the Third Prince is Li Nozha (Li lo-chhia). In popular religion, Li Nozha is identified with the divinity "the Third Prince" in reference to his status as the third son of general Li Jing, or more simply "the Prince", or "Guardian of the Central Altar" ("Zhongtan Yuanshuai"). The immensely popular Ming epic The Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen Yanyi) which has exercised a considerable but relatively unstudied influence on Chinese popular culture accounts for much of the popularity of the hagiography of the Third Prince (Sangren 1993). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In this epic, the Third Prince is a divinely conceived trickster who defied both his earthly father and heaven. As a seven-year old, he playfully and unintentionally provokes a confrontation with the dragon king of the oceans, killing one of the dragon king's sons. This episode is the first of a series of similar ones that lead to another series of attempts by his father to control the unruly boy. Eventually, to escape divine punishment for his insubordination, the Third Prince returns his flesh and bones to his father, a suicidal act intended to abolish his filial obligations. Desiring a new body, the spirit of the Third Prince appears to his mother in her dreams and convinces her to defy her husband and secretly to erect a temple altar to him. Because the temple is so efficacious, never failing to respond to worshippers' requests, it attracts increasing numbers of pilgrims. Eventually, however, the Third Prince's father, Li Jing (Li Ch</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">g), discovers the temple's existence and destroys it and its image of the Third Prince. But because the Third Prince's souls had received nourishment from pilgrims' offerings and incense, his body is partially reconstituted with the aid of his Taoist immortal mentor, Taiyi Zhenren. Thus, the Third Prince goes on to become a supernaturally gifted hero (Sangren 1993:9). The Third Prince story recounts a rebellious son's attempts to escape paternal authority (Sangren 1993:2). In the field work, I found many temples where the god is enshrined are connected with the Lottery. Also, when questioned by Hu Taili (1991:152) as to why they worshipped the deity for the Lottery, the Bettors typically answered: "Because the Third Prince is childish, he is more likely to reveal the winning numbers." <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, the Stone and Tree Gods:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As far as the Stone and Tree Gods are concerned, for a number of reasons noted in the previous chapters, they are treated as minor deities and sometimes as marginal deities. Since they were originally deified because of containing intrinsic mystery according to Chinese cultural context, not because of moral deeds and thus not "approved",(note.13) the local leaders are not interested in promoting them. They are kept minor and marginal and thus outside the orthodox interpretation since there is lack of institutional means to channel these interpretations.(note.14) People may, according to their own needs, provide the deities with new interpretations, and therefore endow them with new functions.(note.15) In recent years, because of social and cultural changes, they have been endowed with a new function as gambling deities.(note.16) In brief, the Stone and Tree Deities, since their deification origins are different from the normal deities, can transform their religious function from normal adoption into gambling. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the depiction of these patron deities, we see that the Good Brothers are favoured by those who are engaged in illegal activity because they have been apotheosised not by their ethics or morality; Jigong was an antinomian Buddhist monk who violated monastic regulations by drinking wine and eating meat; the Third Prince was an unruly boy who returned his flesh and bones to his father, a suicidal act intended to abolish his filial obligations; the Stone and Tree Gods, since they were originally deified because of containing intrinsic mystery and are kept minor and marginal, people may endow them with new function as gambling deities. In brief, we find a common facet among them, that is, none of them are bound by the officially approved morality. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VI. the Deities not Involved in the Lottery:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There are still 33 stone deities and 20 tree deities that do not connect themselves with the Lottery. I attribute the disconnection to four reasons. The first reason I know is that some are located in Hakka villages. As we have noted in Chapter One, probably because of being long persecuted and isolated in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Hakka people developed a strong self-identity and the culture and customs are unique. Most of the Hakka people do not get involved in the Lottery which is popular in Hollo communities. Therefore, the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#S1; see figure 1), the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2), the Stone Grandfather of Ka-seng Ward (#S3; see figure 3), the Stone Goddess of Lek-biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4), the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20) and the Tree God of To.-sian Ward (#T15; see figure 80), because located in Hakka villages, are all unconnected with the divination of the Lottery.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The second reason is that some are treated as the Land God. We know that the Land God can be represented by stone and/or tree and is traditionally regarded as the guardian of land, of community, of wandering souls. In most places I studied, the Land God still plays his traditional role, that is, as the guardian of land and of community.(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The third reason is that some are too marginally located to be known by the Bettors. For example, only a few neighbours of the Tree God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Lo-chui</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T24; see figure 90) know the tree is a deity and worship it with some incense sticks. Naturally, it does not attract gamblers. The Tree God of Chhau- lian Lane (#T25; see figure 91) is worshipped with a small censer beside a small temple. Only a few people on some specific occasions access the place and worship the tree. It is unlikely that the Bettors can find the place. By the same token, the Elderly Tree of Pak-li Rural-town (#T36; see figure 103), the stone Good Brothers of Bah-t</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> Hamlet (#S22; see figure 23) and the stone Good Brothers of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S26; see figure 28) are too marginally located to be known by the Bettors. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The last reason that some of the deities are unconnected with the Lottery is that their custodians do not allow the Bettors to come for predictions of the winning numbers of the Lottery. If a temple is open to the Bettors, they can make the temple more prosperous and at least better-financed. Consequently, the custodians of some temples encourage the Bettors to come for the winning numbers. However, Bettors who lose in the Lottery might come to destroy the deity statues or even set fire on the temples. I was told that the humble temple of the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60) has been burned deliberately twice since it was built. Hu Taili also reports that a deity statue had been cut off eight times (1991:139). Therefore, some well-organised temples, which can collect donations door-to-door or establish a committee to support the temple finances do not have to take the risk of allowing the Bettors to come.(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In sum, we know that the reasons that keep these natural objects from the Bettors are that: 1, they are located in Hakka villages; 2, they are too marginally located to be known; 3, they are regarded as the Land God; and 4, well-financed temples' custodians do not allow the Bettors to come for the winning numbers. Therefore, whether a temple has been originally initiated due to performing miracles, or is connected with nominal adoption, has nothing to do with whether it is selected for gambling or not (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VII. the Land God and the Wealth God:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25); the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33); the stone Land God of Chhien-kah Ward (#S39; see figure 41); the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65) are connected with the Lottery. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Why in most localities the Land God is not connected with the Lottery while in some places he is treated so? An exemplary case to offer the answer and to explain the complicated relations among the Stone God, the Land God, the Good Brothers, and the Third Prince is the locality named "Chap-si-hun" (literally, the Fourteen Shares) where the temple of the Grandfather of Yellow Stone of Lai-o. District (#S43) is located. The Grandfather of Yellow Stone was deified about 50 years ago because of its unusual location (see also Chapter Five). The temple was very popular for nominal adoption (see also Chapter Six) and is currently famous for revealing the Lottery numbers. However, the Bettors come to the temple not only to worship the Stone God entitled "the Grandfather of Yellow Stone", but also the Third Prince enshrined in the same temple. In addition, both the Land God temple and the Good <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Brothers</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> located beside it are also worshipped by the Bettors for the winning numbers. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As I have explained in the previous sections, the Stone God, the Good Brothers, and the Third Prince are worshipped by the Bettors since they are all not bound by the officially approved morality. However, although people come to worship the Land God is also for the winning numbers, the notion of worshipping him is different. When asked why they were worshipping the Land God as a patron deity of the Lottery, most of the Bettors answered: "Because the Land God is a god of wealth (cf. Hu Taili 1991:155)." In Chapter Three, I stated that sometimes he is also seen as a wealth god, since wealth and prosperity depend on the quality of the crops and on the peace of the community. Moreover, he is venerated as a wealth god mostly by businessmen such as stall-holders, traders, shop-keepers etc. Therefore, my hypothesis is that the Land God who is worshipped in urban areas as wealth god is more likely to get involved with gambling. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Indeed, the worship of the Wealth God is common in Chinese world (Yang 1961:79). He is not only ubiquitous in shops and stores, but also widely present in many temples and even in private homes. In New Year Festival, red scrolls are hung on the side posts, proclaiming that "yellow gold is bestowed upon the lucky man" (Burkhardt 1958b:52).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Many deities serve as the Wealth God. Some are specialised gods concerned with blessing the acquisition of wealth, while others were all-purpose gods which assumed the additional function of imposing social and moral restrictions on the manner of attaining prosperity (Yang 1961:76). Guan'gong, for instance, the god of war and the symbol of loyalty, is often worshipped as "Wu Caishen" (i.e. "the Military God of Wealth"). In folkloristic interpretation, he was cast in his role of a wealth god not merely by his might to bring wealth but also by his spirit of justice and loyalty, which should govern the dispensation of wealth. The worship of the god Guan'gong and his kind not only is considered a favourable influence in one's efforts to acquire wealth but also commits one to the spirit of justice and loyalty after prosperity arrives (cf. Yang 1961:79). According to the legends portraying the Land God, to worship him as a god of wealth require the commitment to the spirit as implied in the case of Guan'gong.(note.19) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">VIII. Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">During the years of my field research, I had many opportunities to chat with and interview the Bettors. Since the lottery was and is illegal, at first they were unwilling to tell me that they came to seek the winning numbers of the Lottery. However, believers of popular religion normally worship deities only during the daytime, but the Bettors carried out their worship almost always around midnight. Moreover, unlike normal worshippers who put offerings, lighted candles, burned incense sticks and burned spirit money, they only burned spirit money and stayed around the altars overnight and inspected the ashes of the incense sticks and/or the surface of the incense trays closely and repeatedly. An experienced field researcher could realise that they were Bettors seeking the winning numbers of the Lottery. As we became familiar with each other, they became more and more willing to tell me that they came for the winning numbers. I spent much time consulting them about how to use divination instruments and predict the winning numbers.(note.20) If they won in the Lottery, they bought gold plaques, hired a hand puppet show, a Taiwanese opera show, or even a striptease show to dedicate to the deities for thanksgiving. If they lost in the Lottery, they would consider that the time was still not mature, that the deities were unwilling to make them rich (cf. Yuan Chang-rue 1993:11). If they lost many times, they would think that the deity statue had been possessed by evil spirits and thus its hand must be cut off in order to prevent it from cheating the Bettors anymore (see figures 108 & 109). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Sometimes, when I asked why they liked to bet, people would answer me that betting was for recreation. In effect, it is a worldwide phenomena that the gambler may justify his/her losses as a fair payment for the pleasure s/he has obtained from the activity itself (Devereux 1968:54).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Sometimes, I seriously asked those whom I was relatively familiar with as to why they liked to bet, and they would, as seriously as I, answer that: "Life is harsh, the Lottery is the only way that I have a chance to get rich!" The content of their conversations, their clothes, the vehicles they drove, the vocabulary they used, all indicate the low social status and relative poverty of these people. A study (Sutton-Smith and others 1963:21; cf. Devereux 1968:56-57) points out that in the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> games of chance tend to be preferred by women and low-status economic groups - categories especially involved with positions of frustrating drudgery and with routine responsibilities. On the contrary, a preference for games of strategy and also games of physical prowess is more common among higher-status persons. The Lottery concerns only the luck of the Bettors; it is obviously a game of chance. Although that study was carried out in the <st1:country-region st="on">United States</st1:country-region>, it can support the present case in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> as well. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I believe that the prevalence of the Lottery is a reaction to the contemporary situation of the rapid social change in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Actually, the majority of positions in the top ranks of the government, in the education and academic system, and in the military offices are possessed by the followers of the Government.(note.21) Those who are far away from the privileged have little chance to gain equal rights, no matter how hard they work. Nevertheless, since its rewards are distributed on the basis of pure chance, in the Lottery the factor of social inequality is minimised, and thus even the unprivileged people have equal chance to get rich and even to defeat the privileged. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, the previous examination of the divination instruments reveals the fact that the Bettors rely neither on extraordinary spiritual masters, nor do they depend on centralised priesthood. Additionally, through the analysis of the characteristics of the patron deities of the Lottery, we find that the Bettors favour the deities who are not bound by morality and who are outside the orthodox interpretation such as the deities I described in the previous sections. In other words, they favour "challengers" rather than "keepers" (see also Chapter Three). Just as Devereux (1968:56) maintains that "gambling would appear to make a mockery of the legitimate economy," I would say that to a certain degree the Lottery can be read as a resistance against or even subversion of those who are privileged and who set social values. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Please see Hu Taili (1991) for a detailed description of the Lottery. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Under the pressures of rapid social change, those of a more pious frame of mind sought to reaffirm their religious and moral tradition through forming groups to foster it, and through claims to direct, new and direct revelations from ancient culture heroes. Indeed, both of these two factors, directly or indirectly, caused the resurgence of some folk sectarian societies in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. It is said that such a resurgence can be interpreted as a religious response to modernity (Jordan & Overmyer 1986:12-13). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the historical experience of Taiwanese, please see Chapter One for details. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7); the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9); the Stone God of Jin-ho Village (#S11; see figure 11); the Stone God of Kang-khau Ward (#S14; see figure 14); the Stone God of Ho-peng Ward (#S15; see figure 15); the stone Granny of Ho-peng Ward (#S16; see figure 16); the Stone God of Tiong-guan Ward (#S19; see figure 19); the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25); the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26); the Stone God of Sin-hong Ward (#S27; see figure 29); the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33); the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35); the Stone God of Khe-te Hamlet (#S34; see figure 36); the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37); the Stone God of Hi-ti Rural-town (#S37; see figure 39); the stone Land God of Chhien-kah Ward (#S39; see figure 41); the Divine Stone of Giong-tek Boulevard (#S41; see figure 43); the Grandfather of Yellow Stone of Lai-o. District (#S43; see figure 45); the Stone God of Pe-hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47); the White Crane Immortal of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S46; see figure 48); the Wind- moving Stone of Bak-sa District (#S48; see figure 51); the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57); the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60); the stone Turtle of Ken- ki Road (#S56; see figure 61); the Stone God of Tham-te Ward (#S57; see figure 62); the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63); the Stone God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Tang-si</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S59) and the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65) (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Pine King of Chong-ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67); the Tree God of Thau-hun Village (#T4; see figure 69); the Tree God of Siong-tek Village (#T5; see figure 70); the Tree God of Kim-bin Ward (#T6; see figure 71); the Tree God of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73); the Tree God of So.-o Urban-town (#T10; see figure 75); the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 79); the Beech Grandfather of Pak-si Ward (#T16; see figure 81); the Tree God of Sin-hong Ward (#T17; see figure 82); the Banyan God of S</span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">n- lim Ward (#T18; see figure 83); the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 84); the Tree God of Khe-te (#T21; see figure 87); the Tree God of Cho.-su Lane (#T22; see figure 88); the Tree God of Uan-chip Road (#T23; see figure 89); the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92); the Tree God of Po-san Ward (#T31; see figure 97); the tree Land God of Pak-li Rural-town (#T35; see figure 102); the Tree God of Lam-huin Ward (#T37) and the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104). These deities can be subdivided into three types: the Stone and Tree Deity, the Land God, and the Good Brothers. I shall discuss them below (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It has declined recently (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:11), but is still the most popular form of gambling in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Weller (1996:259) argues that the smell of cigarettes is more disreputable than the smell of pure incense. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">While the origins of gambling are lost to recorded history, it probably derived from the various methods of divination by which ancient people sought to gain knowledge of the future, to cope with problems of uncertainty and fate (Paton 1917:163; Devereux 1968:53). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For instance, Roman Catholics have come to take a liberal attitude toward gambling, holding that there is nothing wrong in principle with gambling, providing only had certain conditions be met: that the game be honest, that the stakes be moderate and within the means of the players, and that the money staked be one's own, for example (Devereux 1968:58). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The gamblers in <st1:place st="on">N. America</st1:place> fast and pray, they seek supernatural aid in dreams, they observe continence, they burn tobacco in honour of their manitou (Hartland <st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1917c</st1:chmetcnv>:171). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">By careful examination, we can argue that the instrument of "intuitive interpretation" can belong both to "intuitive divination" and "possession divination". Nonetheless, the instrument does not depend on the intuition of privileged masters at all. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, we do know that he spent some time in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Hangzhou</st1:place></st1:city>. He was ordained and he passed away in the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Hangzhou</st1:place></st1:city> monasteries Lingyinsi and Jingxisi respectively. In <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Hangzhou</st1:place></st1:city> we find the earliest evidence of popular lore, both in numerous novels and plays about him and where their eccentric features -- protruding noses, large eyes and bushy eyebrows -- were exaggerated and their earlobes were occasionally even pierced with large earrings (Shahar 1993). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the deification of these deities, please see Chapter Five for details. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Weller (1985:47-59), explains why officials have failed to manipulate the interpretation of ghosts, also contributing to the lack of institutional means to channel these interpretations. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In some places of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the Tree God is even interpreted as the patron deity of traffic (Yuan Chang-rue 1993:17). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Yuan Chang-rue (1993:20-21) also has a similar observation. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the stone Land God of Pei-go Village (#S12; see figure 12), the stone Land God of Tua-un Village (#S13; see figure 13), the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22), the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27), the stone Land God of E-huan Field (#S28; see figure 30), the stone Land God of Sin-hong Ward (#S29; see figure 31), the stone Land God of Chui-bue-a Hamlet (#S30; see figure 32), the stone Land God of Phek-chiu Ward (#S32; see figure 34), the stone Land God of Tong-an Street (#S42; see figure 44), the stone Land God of Tua-kham Village (#S51; see figure 55), the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58), the stone Land God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S54; see figure 59), the tree Land God of In-suan Street (#T11; see figure 76) and the tree Land God of the East Gate (#T12; see figure 77) (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5; see figure 5), the Stone God of Sia-thau Rural-town (#S6; see figure 6), the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8), the Emperor of Six Areas of Tan-suan Rural-town (#S10), the Stone God of Ka-lo Ward (#S18; see figure 18), the Stone God of Ka-ho Ward (#S36; see figure 38), the Literate and Militant Emperor of Po.-ho Village (#S38; see figure 40), the Grandfather of the Ancient Temple of An-lam District (#S40; see figure 42), the stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48), the Stone God of Tek-san Town (#S17; see figure 17), the Stone God of Pak-tau District (#S47; see figure 50), the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam- teng Hamlet (#S49; see figure 52), the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54), the Stone God of Hong-guan City (#S60; see figure 64), The Tree God of Uan-lim Town (#T1; see figure 66), the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68), the Tree God and Goddess of Kui-sin Village (#T7; see figure 72), the Tree God of Tiong-san Ward (#T9; see figure 74), the Banyan Grandfather of Ka- lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Tree God of Gue-bai Hamlet (#T20; see figure 86), the Banyan Tree Goddess of Thong-liang Village (#T27; see figure 93), the Tree God of Chap-ji Field (#T28; see figure 94), the General Chu of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T29; see figure 95), the Tree King of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T30; see figure 96), the Tree God of Chheng-bek Ward (#T32; see figure 98), the Autumn Maple God of Lam-kang District (#T33), the Tree God of Lam- kian West Road (#T34; see figure 101) and the Tree King of Tai-li Rural-town (#T39; see figure 105) (see also Appendix). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, even then the Land God in rural areas is occasionally chosen to be the patron deity of gambling and he is not inevitably chosen as the gambling patron deity in urban areas. Therefore, there is a need for further investigation and analysis. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.20)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the use of divination instruments to predict the winning numbers, see also <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Davis</st1:place></st1:city> (1992:425-28) for details. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.21)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I acknowledge that the exclusion of Taiwanese from top-ranking government posts is less extensive than it was in the past.</span></b></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-7154728529434838642008-02-07T03:23:00.000-08:002008-02-17T03:25:12.132-08:00Chapter Eight: The Links among the Stone, Tree, and Land Deities<span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I. Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Historical study tends to be more related to the past, to the elite groups, and to the textual. Field research tends to be more connected with the present, with the common people, and with the oral. If the two subjects can have a dialogue between each other, many, if not all, questions left by the previous chapters can be answered.(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Chapter Four, I stated that, according to my field work, the Land God of some localities is represented by a stone and/or tree. This representation is also found in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> as reported by some scholars (e.g. Bredon & Mitrophanom 1927:164; Burkhardt 1958b:52, 1958b:115, <st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958c</st1:chmetcnv>:29; Maspero 1981:6). However, what is interesting is that people seem not to distinguish the stone Land God (Chio Tho.-ti-kong) and the Stone God (Chio-thao-kong), namely, these two gods seem to be somewhat interchangeable. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For example, a black stone (#S42; see figure 44) is enshrined in a temple of the Land God.(note.2) A worshipper told me that it was the Stone God, while the custodian of this temple assured me that it was the Land God. He said that the stone was the original stone Land God that was enshrined by the pioneers when they arrived in this area. In addition, the case in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Nantou</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> reported by Liu Zhiwan (1961:127) in Chapter Five is also similar.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Correspondingly, the Land God of some localities is represented by or considered as residing in a tree.(note.3) However, people sometimes confuse the tree Land God (Chhiu Tho.- ti-kong) with the Tree God (Tua-chhiu-kong) and thus these two deities are also somewhat interchangeable (cf. Liu Zhiwan 1961:163; Eberhard 1970:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="255" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">255f</st1:chmetcnv>). For instance, when interviewing the believers residing around the Elderly Tree of Pak-li Rural- town (#T36; see figure 103), I asked them what deity the divine tree is. Some answered that the tree was the Land God, some replied that it was the tree Land God, some replied that it is the tree for the shrine of the Land God, while some just replied that it is the Tree God.(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Similarly, the tree representing the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 79) was originally not worshipped as the Tree God but as the Land God. I was informed that when the pioneers of this locality started to cultivate this area, they built a humble stone altar and situated a statue of the Land God under the tree to sacrifice to the Land God. Gradually, the altar and the statue were covered by the trunk of the tree and became invisible. Nowadays, people still worship the tree and regard it as the Tree God. However, elderly residents who know the origin of the divine tree customarily sacrifice to the tree for the worship of the Land God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In brief, the fact that the Land God is sometimes mixed up with the Stone God and the Tree God leads us to suspect that the three deities may have some connections. Unfortunately, the field research I have done for this thesis is not able on its own to answer this question. However, if the field research fails to give us indication of the connections, textual approaches would be worth attempting. In fact, textual data are often of great ethnographic value and some scholars do contribute a lot to the study of Chinese life by their studies of historical texts. The aim of the following sections is to apply the theories of the scholars whose studies are based on historical texts to answering the questions left by the field research.(note.5) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">II. Bernhard Karlgren and Phallicism:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">One of the most distinguished scholars on this subject is Bernhard Karlgren. Karlgren (1930:1-66), using ancient sources such as the oracle bones of He'nan area and bronzes of the Yin and Zhou Dynasties, has showed that the character ( ) which now means ancestor, was written without the later radical as ( ), and that this character on the oracle bones and bronzes has the form ( ) and, is, in fact, a plainly recognizable representation of a phallus and really a fertility cult (cf. Ling Shun-sheng <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1959" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1959a</st1:chmetcnv>:178; Fitzgerald 1961:45-50; Berkovits and others 1969:123). (note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Actually, the recent works of paleographers of the ancient Chinese inscriptions on bronzes and oracle bones have shown that in ancient times the characters now found differentiated by "radicals" in the broad sense, were written without these additions, and therefore many words now definitely differentiated were anciently written with the same character (Fitzgerald 1961:47). The investigation by Karlgren serves as a good example.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In order to give more support to his phallic theory derived from the paleographic studies, Karlgren further asserts in the same paper that though the Chinese word "She" is nowadays written ( ) with the "radical" ( ), occurring in many religious characters, and ( ) "tu", the soil, the oldest form of the character "She" was simpler. It was identical with the symbol for "tu" soil, without any ( ) shi at the side. Then he points out that the character for soil "tu", originally written ( ), was in fact, a representation of the phallus (Karlgren 1930:17; cf. Fitzgerald 1961:129). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Karlgren's phallic theory is further furnished by the character mu ( ) "male animal", used as opposed to "female animal. The animal may be ox or sheep: and the element "tu", written ( ) (the "She" pole) is the essential part of the character, it indicates the male sex. Therefore, the sense is clear: the ( ) "ox" with the ( ) "penis". Here, then the "tu" "earth" pictogram, the essential part of the character, is surely a phallic symbol (Karlgren 1930:19-20; cf. Ling Shun-sheng 1959b:43).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, Karlgren (1930:9) mentions the theory fully proved by Chavannes that the "ancestral temple" ("zumiao" or "zongmiao") on the left (east) side of the king's or the feudal prince's palace, and the "gods of the Soil and the Grain" (altars of the Sheji), to the right (west) of it, were indissolubly connected." Then, he points out that: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">... the technical term both for the ancestral tablet and for the pole of the she was chu ( ); then we are authorised to conclude that the symbols ( ) and ( ) are essentially the same, a pole forming a fecundity-fertility symbol: in the first case it is the ancestral tablet tsu, in the second the soil god "She", in both cases a strikingly phallic symbol (Karlgren 1930:18). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Finally, he quotes a sentence in an important classical book Mozi (5th c. BCE.) chapter 31 (Minggei). The sentence states: "that (the state) Yin has the zhu ( ) is just the same as that Qi has the Sheji, that Song has the Sanglin and that <st1:place st="on">Chu</st1:place> has the Yunmeng". Sheji and Ji are the well-known "altars of soil and grain". Now, in feudal state Yen, the altar to the "She" was called zhu ( ), the very word and the very character which means "ancestor" (Karlgren 1930:19).(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As a result, he cites Granet's hypothesis and concludes that the two cults (ancestral cult and earth cult) are really the result of a division and specialization of one primary cult (Karlgren 1930:10; cf. Fitzgerald 1961:47; Eberhard 1971:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="366" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">366f</st1:chmetcnv>).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The results attained by Karlgren are of considerable importance. On the one hand they furnish us with an interesting explanation of the origin of the ancestral tablet, which has played such a predominant part in Chinese culture through the ages. On the other hand, they throw a new searching light on a whole set of rites of paramount importance in ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, connecting still more closely than before the ancestral temple and the god of the soil. They suggest that phallicism has regularly had to do with the crops of the soil (fertility cult) (Karlgren 1930:9). Furthermore, the results show the Chinese world to have had the same sort of system of ideas and rites concerning fecundity and fertility as other parts of the World (Karlgren 1930:21). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">III. Historical Studies of the "She" Cult:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The importance of the studies concerned with the "She" has been recognised by many modern scholars, both oriental and western. For instance, in Chinese language, there was not a specific term to signify "society". The modern term "Shehui" is borrowed from Japanese language. "Shehui" literally means "gathering for the worship of the 'She'" (cf. Hodous, 1929:58; Yang 1961:98).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, Origin of the "She" Cult:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Based on certain Chinese classics, Ling Shun-sheng maintains that the "She" Cult had been in existence from the very beginning of Chinese history (1964:37). I select some of the quotations he cited as follows: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Vol. 32 of the Shuijingzhu: "There was the 'She' of Emperor Shennong" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Fengshan of the Shiji: "Beginning with the prosperous period under the rule of Emperor Yu, the sacrificial system of the 'She' began to be established" (qtd. in Ling Shun- sheng 1964:37).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Guanzi states: "King Youyu built a mound of earth as the 'She'" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Huai'nanzi: "For the sacrificial rites under the rule of King Youyu, the 'She' was made with earth" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, Sima Qian, a great historian comments that: "The system of the "She" has been developed through a very, very long period" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, Functions of the "She":<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to the paleographic study mentioned above, the "She" was originally a representation of the phallus and its cult was a fertility cult to which sacrifices were offered for abundant harvests.(note.8) Thus, according to Hodous (1929:59), the "She" altars should be set in the open air in order to represent the focal point of the fructifying forces of earth to heaven. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At least since the Zhou Dynasty, when the feudal state was also considered as a territorial entity, the "She" of state was located in the capital of each state and was given the name of the dynasty to which it belonged. For example, the "She" of the Xia Dynasty was named "Xiashe" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37). From that time on, the state altar of the "She" was constructed with ground obtained from the different parts of its land (Hodous 1929:59). Cited below for illustration is a record from the Liji (i.e. Book of Rites): "The domestic sacrificial services were performed under the skylight (or roof window) and the state sacrificial rites were performed at the 'She'" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:38). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As a result, the "She" not only was the scene of fertility rites but also became in effect the locus of each state's guardian god and became in turn the symbol of the continuing power of the state (Yang 1961:98; Wright 1977:39). At the time of important occasions such as the birth of a prince, ascension to rule, sickness of the emperor or empress, solar eclipse, drought, big hunting party, and military campaigns, libations were offered to the "She" altar (Overmyer 1987:260). Moreover, when the ruler of the state went on a journey he announced the fact and made an offering for a successful outcome (cf. Ling Shun-sheng 1958:49; Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:572). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Here the soldiers starting on a distant expedition were exhorted to be true to the "She" which gave them birth and nourished them (Hodous 1929:59). Here the armies of a state sacrificed before the start of a campaign, and here they presented captives and offered sacrifices after a victory. Before the "She" altar, the ruler took a solemn vow (Wright 1977:39). The chief carried the tablet of the "She" in his baggage when he set forth to war, before it he sacrificed the vanquished and the guilty and bestowed rewards (Granet 1930:239-40). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Thus, when one state defeated another, then the "She" altar of the defeated state had to be covered over by the victor. For instance, as recorded in Gaozu Bengji of the Shiji, when the Qin Dynasty was overthrown by the Han, the state "She" altar was ruined and covered over (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:37). This practice was based on the belief that the covering of the "She" altar of the defeated state could prevent the revival of the former state by the beneficent forces of nature (Hodous 1929:59; Chamberlayne 1966:167). Indeed, as we see in many textual references, the extinction of a state was expressed as "the interruption of ('She') sacrifice" or "the ruin of the "She" altar" (Fitzgerald 1961:38; Wright 1977:39).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Han times (206 BCE. - 220 CE.), the "She" was universally found in counties, villages, towns, and neighbourhoods, and it became the ceremonial ground for a large variety of community activities such as the swearing of a local official into office, praying for rain, taking a public vow, or praying for blessing (Yang 1961:98).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As time went on, the "She" acquired other functions. It came into relationship with rural granaries in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and assumed the task of local famine relief, which was to be important in the sub-administrative schemes of practically all subsequent dynasties (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:37). Since this period, the organisation of many villages or neighbourhoods was often called "She" (Yang 1961:98).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to some official documents, a varying number of adjacent households (between twenty and fifty) were to constitute one "She", so that the households in each division could extend "mutual assistance in farm work, in the event of death or sickness occurring in any of them during the farming season" (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:36).(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to "<st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Huian</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> Government Manual" (published in 1672 and reprinted 1987) cited by Wang Mingming, the name of the place administration system was called "pudu (precinct and garrisons)". Each "pu" had a "tan (temple or altar) in which the grain god (liji shen) and the place god (lishe shen), as well as the local territorial patron (shi zhu), were placed. Within the temple, the north part of the space was allocated to a representative from the "du" and the governors of the "pu". Between the deities and the governors was a space for religious specialists. Ordinary members of the "pu" were excluded from the enclosed temple and were placed outside the gate of the temple to witness proceedings of meetings and ceremonies organised by the governors (Wang Mingming 1995:49).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Because these specific gods were enshrined in the temple and the common people were excluded, I suspect it was also a "She" temple. Moreover, several records were kept in the temple. These were community compact regulations (xiangyue), lists of households, and registration documents of new immigrants who just moved into the particular "pu". A temple or "tan" was intended as a focal point of "pu" as a place. This was where disasters such as floods, fire, theft, disease, and crimes were reported to the governors and gods, publicised to the people, and resolved. It was also where local civil disputes such as those regarding marriage, land ownership, property, and exchange of goods were mediated by the governors and elders of the "pu", and where deviance and criminality was punished in front of the public. On three occasions annually, universal salvation festivals (pudu) were officially organised to exorcise diseases and hungry ghosts (Wang Mingming 1995:49).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Since 1912 when the imperial system was terminated, the official worship of the "She" has been in abeyance. However, in the rural villages as late as 1948, the "She" altars could still be found and some and certain forms of governing boards were still elected annually which took care not merely of the annual sacrifices but also of scavenging the economically valuable waste materials of the neighbourhood. This task was usually farmed out to a collector, but the administrators used the income from the waste for neighbourhood welfare work (Yang 1961:99). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to some field researches of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Guangdong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>, while the gathering for the worship of the "She" had long been discontinued, local neighbourhoods in many southern towns were still called "She" and the shrines of the Land God were still called "She" until the 1920's (Yang 1961:99; Ling Shun-sheng 1964:41; Feuchtwang 1977:591, 1992:65). By the same token, in many places, the Land God is also called the "She" God (Werner 1977:414).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, Sacrificial Dates of the Ancient Altar: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Paying homage to the "She" has been a practice among the Chinese people for several thousand years. Shennong, a legendary hero who is said to be the inventor of the plough and the first Chinese agriculturist, is recorded to have gone with his people every year in the eleventh month to worship "She" (Werner 1977:415). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Shang Dynasty, the character "She" was used to mean "a year," probably because the sacrifice to it was a yearly event at that time (Chow Tse-tsung 1978:63). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Zhouli, an important Chinese classic, it is recorded that "sacrificial services were performed at the Zhoushe in appropriate seasons of the year". In another place, it is also said that "Sacrifice was made to the Mashe in autumn" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:<st1:chmetcnv unitname="F" sourcevalue="38" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">38f</st1:chmetcnv>). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Before the fall of the Qing Dynasty, two State ceremonies were performed annually for the "She", the one in spring, and the other one in autumn. On other occasions, such as a triumphal return from a battle, solar eclipse, big hunting party, and so forth, rites were also performed for the "She" (Hodous 1929:60; Ling Shun-sheng 1958:49). These rites, indicative of the deep veneration for agriculture ingrained in the people, were performed in the Capital by the Emperor in person, and in the provinces by the local magistrates (Bredon & Mitrophanom 1927:129; Feuchtwang 1977:595).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">On the dates of the rites, all who were engaged in worshipping the same "She" performed sacrificial rites together. Those with official authority read the imperial edict and encouraged villagers to help the poor and respect age and so on. (cf. Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:277; Yang 1961:98; Feuchtwang 1992:65). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, Structures of the "She" Cult:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As far as the primitive form of the "She" is concerned, the famous Chinese classic Huai'nanzi says: "In the sacrificial rites under the rule of King Youyu, the 'She' was made with earth; under the reign of Xiahou, the 'She' was planted with the pine tree; the stone 'She' was used by the Yin people; and the 'She' of Zhou was planted with the chestnut tree" (qtd. in Ling Shun- sheng 1964:40).(note.10) There is also an account in the Shangshu: "only the pine tree was to be planted at the site of the grand 'She', the cypress at the site of east 'She'; the catalpa at north 'She'" (qtd. in Ling Shun-sheng 1964:41). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Furthermore, in the Shuowen, we find the same statement that the "She" altar had a tree (qtd. in Eberhard 1970:23). The Chapter of Minggui, Vol. 8 of Mozi states: "In the former times of Yu, Xia, Shang and Zhou, upon the founding of his empire, each sage monarch would establish his ancestral temple in the main altar (tan) of state and select a dense wood to be the 'She'" (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:41).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the above passages, we know that the "She" structures of the four Dynasties, Yu, Xia, Shang and Zhou, were different from one another, and that the location where the cult was worshipped in ancient times was marked either with the raising of an earth mound, the erection of a stone, the planting of a tree or the selection of a wood or grove. In view of this, the primitive "She" structures may be at least divided into four types, that is, the earth "She", stone "She", tree "She", and forest "She" (cf. Granet 1930:239; Wright 1977:39).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(1) Earth "She" - The place where sacrifices were made to "She" in the ancient times was sometimes called "shan" or "tan" and both of them were made of earth. The former was made by making level and sweeping clean a piece of ground and the latter by raising a pile of earth above the ground. We can also find the descriptions of the earth "She" in Ho Xiu's commentary on the Gongyang Zhuan and Cai Yun's Tuduan (cf. Ling Shun-sheng 1964:40).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(2) Stone "She" - It appears that in certain regions and certain times the "She" was made not of earth but of stone (Granet 1930:239). The stone "She" may imply either the "She" altar or a upright tablet which was made of stone. Ling Shun- sheng suspects the ancient stone "She" altar of being just a stone Zhu - tablet or a stone pillar or a block of stone, about a foot thick and five feet high, which functioned as an image and possibly represented the ancestral god (1958:49). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, even though Wang Mingming (1995:49) does not mention by what material the representation of the local territorial patron (shi zhu) of the tan of Huian County was made, by the name "shi zhu (stone host)" I suspect that it was made of stone.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(3) Tree "She" - References to trees on the altar of the earth god are very common in ancient literature. This appears to have been a widespread practice common throughout ancient Chinese society (Eberhard 1970:23). According to the Chinese classics cited above, the planting of trees at the "She" altars was mandatory in ancient times (Ling Shun-sheng 1964:41). For further evidence, the following is extracted from Shangshu: "Only the pine tree was to be planted at the site of the Dashe (the Grand 'She'); the cypress at the site of the Dongshe (the East 'She'); the catalpa at the Beishe (the North 'She')" (cf. Ling Shun-sheng 1964:41).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(4) Forest "She" - The <st1:place st="on">Forest</st1:place> "She" differs from the Tree "She" in that the latter was represented either by a tree specially planted or by a natural-grown tree and the former was represented by a natural-grown forest (cf. Granet 1930:239). The term "Sanglin" ("the mulberry forest") in the passage quoted from the Chapter Minggei of Mozi, which I mention above, can give us a confirmation (cf. Karlgren 1930:19).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It thus becomes clear that the Earth "She" was made by making level and sweeping clean a piece of ground and by raising a pile of earth above the ground. The Stone "She" may imply either the "She" altar or the tablet that was made of stone. The Tree "She" was represented either by a tree specially planted or by a natural-grown tree which could be a pine, chestnut, catalpa, or cypress tree etc. The <st1:place st="on">Forest</st1:place> "She" was represented by a natural-grown forest such as a mulberry forest.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">4, Menhirs and Dolmens:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As mentioned above, many "She" were made of stones. Ling Shun-sheng (1964:40) hypothesises that these stones were menhirs. The following texts cited by him from certain historical records can also bear this out:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Songshi Liji (960-1279 CE.): "The object of 'She' is made of a five 'chi' long and two 'chi' wide, bell-shaped stone. The upper half is a bit hewed and the lower half is buried (into the ground)" (my translation; Ling Shun-sheng 1959b:20).(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Yuanshi Liji (1271-1368 CE.): "The object of 'She' is made of a five 'chi' long and two 'chi' wide, white stone. ... The upper half of it is hewed into bell-shaped and the lower half is buried into the ground" (my translation; Ling Shun-sheng 1959b:20).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Ming Liji (1368-1644): "The object of 'She' is made of a five 'chi' long and two 'chi' wide stone. The upper half of it is pointed and the lower half is (buried) in the ground" (my translation; Ling Shun-sheng 1959b:20).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In volume four of the Zhuluo Xianzhi is written:(note.12) "The object of 'She' is set at the centre of the altar and made of a stone pillar of two 'chi' five 'cun' in length and one 'chi' and one 'cun' in width. The upper half of it is pointed and bell-shaped and the lower half is buried into the ground" (my translation; Ling Shun-sheng 1959b:20).(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Additionally, Ling Shun-sheng suspects that many of the ancient stone-made "She" altars were just dolmens (1967:133). In fact, dolmen is not absent in the Chinese world. It is called "Shipeng" (Stone Shed) in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In addition to the <st1:state st="on">Shandong</st1:state> and <st1:placename st="on">Liaodong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Peninsula</st1:placetype>, there were also dolmens in He'nan Province in <st1:place st="on">North China</st1:place> in accordance with documented records. For example, the Shipeng Shan (the <st1:placename st="on">Stone-shed</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype>) of Yong Yang, Sanshi Shan (the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Three-rock</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountain</st1:placetype></st1:place>) recorded in the Hanshu, and the Xiezishi (the Writing Stone) at Xinyang were all dolmens (cf. Ling Shun-sheng 1964:40; 1967:133). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">IV. Dialogue Between Historical Studies and Field Data:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In China, the Land God was commonly called by many names, such as She, Tudi, Sheshen, Tushen, Tudi Shen, Tudi Pusa, Tudi Laoye, Shegong, Tudi Gonggong, and so on (Werner 1977:414). What is noteworthy is that, according to these names, he seemed to be identified with "She". "She" was originally the theistic symbol of the feudal state and in charge of feudal fertility. The Land God, introduced in the first century BCE., was also in charge of fertility of land. Therefore, from the functional viewpoints (Yang 1961:97), the identification is quite natural.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Furthermore, in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, some people identify the Land God with the person who first taught agricultural skills, that is, Shennong. Therefore, instead of placing small piles of seed in front of the Land God, farmers put rice seeds in the hand of Shennong. People in Yilan county think that the birthday of Shennong is on the twenty sixth day of the fourth month. The date is also recorded in the Chinese Almanac circulated in this county.(note.14) But there are two exceptions. One Shennong temple celebrates the deity's birthday on the second day of the second month and the other temple on the thirteenth day of the second month. The devotees of these two temples told me that it is because Shennong is similar to the Land God. In brief, sometimes Shennong, "She", and the Land God are functionally mixed up.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, according to my intensive research in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>, the administration regions of the imperial cults of Shennong and "She" (or Sheji) were larger and separate from the cult of the Land God. Lamley (1977), based on certain historical data, reports that one of the first things the Mandarin bureaucrats did when Yilan was officially incorporated into the imperial government was sponsoring the construction of three new temples. The images of the Heavenly Empress (the Granny), the God of War (Guangong), and Guanyin (the Goddess of Mercy) were brought from the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> mainland and installed in Yilan. The officials in charge saw temple construction as an integral part of the government's mission to "civilize" the Taiwanese frontier. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, according to the temple stele of the <st1:placename st="on">Shennong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype>, the officially sponsored <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Shennong</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> was also built by in <st1:chmetcnv unitname="in" sourcevalue="1812" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1812 in</st1:chmetcnv> Yilan, as soon as the Qing Government appointed its officials to the county. The temple was also called "Shejitan (Sheji Altar)", because Sheji was enshrined in the temple as well. There are six Shennong temples in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place>; only this one was the official temple and only this one enshrines Sheji. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In imperial times, the officials came to make sacrifice to Shennong and Sheji only in this temple and not in the other five Shennong temples. But since 1912, when the imperial system was terminated, the official temples of the Heavenly Empress, the God of War, the Goddess of Mercy, and Shennong Sheji were all turned into sites of popular worship. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">So far, by using the results of the historical studies described above, it is possible to answer some of the questions left by my field work. First of all, in the beginning of this chapter, I mentioned that the Land God of some localities is represented by a stone and/or tree and he is sometimes mixed up with the Stone God and the Tree God. Based on the historical studies above, we realise that the "She" could be constructed with a stone or tree. It is natural that the Land God, usually identical with the "She", is represented by or considered as residing in a stone or tree. Consequently, the Land God is sometimes mixed up with the Tree God and the Stone God nowadays.(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Secondly, in the field work, I found that many of the divine stones and trees are worshipped in the open air; that is, these three deities are different from other Chinese gods who are housed in temples.(note.16) Only some tiny altars or shrines are built to protect their incense pots and statues from rain.(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Actually, the fact that many divine stones and trees are worshipped in the open air has been noticed by numerous field workers (e.g. Burkhardt <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1958a</st1:chmetcnv>:123; Smith (1899) 1969:146; Chamberlayne 1966:167; Berkovits and others 1969:77; Yuan Chang- rue 1993:10). At first, I assumed it was because the natural objects were too big to be housed in temples. However, this is only partly true. We see that, for example, though the grand temples of the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9) and the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8; see figure 8) are big enough to house their divine stones, the stones are still left in the open air. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">When questioned as to why the divine objects are preferably left open to the sky, informants told Berkovits and others (1969:75) that it was to demonstrate the power of the objects to withstand exposure to wind, rain, or sun.(note.18) However, as we have mentioned above, the "She" altars should be set in the open air in order to get the fructifying forces of heaven. It is, more likely that the divine stones and trees are preferably left open to the sky due to the influence of the "She" Cult. (note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Thirdly, among the six dolmens included in my field sample, three are used for the worship of the Land God,(note.20) two are worshipped as the stone Good Brothers,(note.21) and one is treated as the Stone God. (note.22)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to Ling Shun-sheng, many of the ancient stone-made "She" altars were just dolmens. Therefore, the dolmens found by me are probably surviving examples of the ancient stone-made "She" altars. However, the dolmens described above as well as those found in western Europe are usually constructed from huge stones (cf. Edsman 1987:49; Mohen 1989:54). The dolmens found in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> are always tiny ones. Why are the sizes are so different? The answer might be that in the ancient times, when the dolmen served as the tablet of the "She", the dolmen was reduced to become portable in order to let the chief carry it in his baggage when he set forth to war (Ling Shun-sheng 1959b:45). The dolmens we found in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> are possibly the reduced ones. This explanation also verifies that they are surviving examples of the ancient stone-made "She" altars. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Fourthly, in field work, I encountered two shrines of the Land God which had architecture different from those of Hollo villages. The architecture of the shrines in Hollo villages looks like palaces (Cohen 1987:292). However, both the shrines of the tree Land God of </span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">-suan Street (#T11; see figure 76) and the tree Land God of the East Gate (#T12; see figure 77) look like traditional Chinese tombs in which ancestors are buried. This phenomenon drives me to the question whether there is any connection between the Land God and Ancestor Worship.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Day (1974:103) observes that in many parts of the Chinese world the corpses of ancestors deposited on the family ground near the dwelling area were considered to be equal to the Land God. Thus, the relations between ancestors and the Land God are close. From the custom of announcing the death of any individual in the community over which he presides to the Land God, much as a death in the family is ceremoniously announced to the ancestors, Bredon & Mitrophanom (1927:456) also notice that there should be a link between ancestors and the Land God. Anyway, from the paleographic studies of Karlgren reviewed above, it is clear that Ancestor Cult and the Cult of the Land God are the twins as both are offshoots of the fertility cult (cf. Fitzgerald 1961:48). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">V. Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the above analyses, we find that because the "She" Cult was institutionally supported and thus powerful, many cults of the divine stones and trees were influenced by it. Under the influence that the "She" altars should be set in the open air in order to get the fructifying forces of heaven, most divine stones and trees in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> are preferred to be left open to the sky. Perhaps since the dolmens were reduced in size to allow the chiefs to carry them when they set forth to war, the dolmens in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> are constructed with tiny stones instead of huge ones. From the paleographic studies, we realise that both the "She" Cult and Ancestor Worship are offshoots of the ancient Chinese fertility cult. Thus, we found that some shrines of the Land God look like the tombs of ancestors. The reason that the dates of the birthday festival for the Land God are so unified is because they are partly linked to the two sacrificial dates of the "She".(note.23)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">It is obvious that the modern stone and tree worship is closely connected with the "She" Cult. No wonder Wang Xiaolian (qtd. in Wang Jing 1992:71) attributes the origin of this worship to the "She" Cult. It is, however, still difficult to decide whether the modern stone and tree worship are surviving examples of the "She" Cult or not, since at the time when the first surviving books were written, the middle Zhou period, the 5th century, BCE., the cult was already very old, and had undergone modifications which had almost obscured their primitive meaning (Fitzgerald 1961:47; cf. Overmyer 1987:281). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nonetheless, the worship of stones and trees is a world-wide phenomenon and many people cannot refrain from worshipping a stone and tree of a slightly unusual colour or shape, without knowing why they do this (Franz 1990 (1964):209). The classical Chinese example is the eccentric artist Mifu who encountered a big stone, regarded it as divine, bowed down with respect, and called it "the Elder Brother Stone" (see also Chapter Two). In Chapter Five, we also observe that in modern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, many people still cannot refrain from deifying stones without any obvious reason. Psychologically speaking, it is innate in human nature and we cannot rule out this possibility of a primaeval origin of the worship. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Concerning the origin of the "She" Cult, Ling Shun-sheng, in the earlier sections of this chapter, maintains that it had been in existence from the very beginning of Chinese history. Unfortunately, these evidences he offers are rather meager, because the persons he mentioned, such as Emperor Yu, King Youyu, and Emperor Shennong, are all mytho-historical rulers. It is unlikely that we could decide whether they really existed in the world or not. Therefore, my hypothesis is that before the feudal state was considered as a territorial entity, the cults of the stone, tree, phallus, and land had been in existence in the ancient Chinese world. They were either regarded as deities themselves or as possessed by certain supernatural beings such as mythical heroes, divine animals, or natural forces etc. Additionally, the divine stones could be worshipped with the forms of menhir, dolmen, or others. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">When the system of the Chinese feudal states was established, these cults were taken to be theistic symbols of their states. Therefore, the "She" altars could be constructed with stone, tree, and/or earth. But because the cults were too widespread to be fully incorporated into the states, every locality had their own local "She" altar. Moreover, common people had their own cults of these natural objects which were not standardised by the officially fostered "She" Cult. In the first century BCE., when the Cult of the "Fude Zhengshen (Orthodox Spirit of Good Merit; the Land God)" was introduced, many local "She" gods were identified with the Land God because serve a similar function. With this hypothesis, both the phenomena that the cult of the Land God is identified with the "She" Cult and the fact that the cults of Stone and Tree Gods, though left wild, are influenced by the "She" Cult, simultaneously become more explainable. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.1)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I am grateful to Prof. Jack Goody for discussing these issues with me. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">See also Chapter Four for a full description. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">This practice is also found in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> as reported by scholars (e.g. Eberhard 1970:21-23). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">See also Chapter Four for a full description. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Maspero (1981:3), after doing research on Taoism and popular religion, observes that:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">... Chinese have never had that sense of a sudden break with the past, that condemnation of earlier beliefs, which characterizes the religious evolution of the West. This has served to give them the illusion that the religion of today is still the ancient religion and that by keeping up the tradition of antiquity, they are preserving something of it.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, applying historical texts to answer the questions left by the field research, though worth trying, must proceed with caution. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Erkes, a prestigious sinologist, also agrees with Karlgren's theory that the word Zu was a phallic image. However, he argues that:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">... the idea that the character designates a phallus is indeed not quite new. When I was a student I learned from my teacher Conrady that was the current explanation; it is mentioned by Schindler and much earlier by Gabelentz, who doubtless derived it from a Chinese source, though I have not been able to ascertain the origin of this statement. Some months before Karlgren's paper reached me, I had communicated this trace of primitive Chinese phallicism to Dr. Buschan, who has incorporated it in a work on phallic cults which he intends to publish (1931:65). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In fact, this sentence has not only been cited by him, but also by Guo Moruo, Granet, and Ling Shun-sheng (cf. Ling Shun-sheng <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1959" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1959a</st1:chmetcnv>:- 178). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.8)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Chow Tse-tsung (1978:63) also agrees with this theory and thus translates the very character "She" in the poem "The birth of our people," as a "sacrifice for fertility". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.9)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In the Zuozhuan we find that: "In the twenty-fifth year of Zhaogong (517 B.C.) the Qi State presented 1,000 'She' to the Lu State". It was said in Liji that every twenty-five households were organised about a local altar and were called a "She" (Hodous 1929:58; (Eberhard 1970:22; Day 1974:62; Werner 1977:413). Therefore, it is clear that, from that time on, the character "She" had already meant not only a sacrificial altar, but also a residential unit (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:7). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">During the Yuan Dynasty the "She" became an officially instituted centre of agricultural affairs. In 1270 Kublai Khan issued the Nongcan Shiqi Tiao (the Seventeen Articles of the Agricultural and Sericultural System), which called for the organisation of every fifty households in the villages into one "She", and for the appointment of an elderly person versed in agricultural matters to serve as its head, whose duty it was "to teach and supervise the planting of farm crops and mulberry trees" and to guide the general conduct of the inhabitants belonging to his organisation" (Hsiao Kung-chuan 1960:37-8). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.10)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In another article, Ling Shun-sheng (1967:134) cites the passage from Huai'nanzi again. However, this time his translation is somewhat different:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Under the rituals of Yu Yu, the she was made of earth; the she of Hsia Hou was made with the pine tree; stone she was used in the rituals of Yin people; and she of chestnut tree was used by the people of Chow. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.11)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">"Chi" is an ancient Chinese measure unit which is not used nowadays. We are, therefore, not sure what size it is. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.12)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The gazetteer of <st1:placename st="on">Zhuluo</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype>, present <st1:placename st="on">Jiayi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype> and its environs, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, 1717 CE. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.13)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">"Cun" is an ancient Chinese measure unit which is not used nowadays. We are, therefore, not sure what size it is. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.14)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I find that the date of Shennong's birthday is sometimes recorded in the Almanac circulated in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city> area as on the twenty-eighth day of the fourth month. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.15)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, I have not found the Land God represented by a piece of ground or a pile of earth, nor is the God represented by a natural-grown forest. In other words, no surviving examples of the Earth "She" and <st1:place st="on">Forest</st1:place> "She" appear on this island. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.16)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Chamberlayne (1966:167) argues that originally Chinese spirits were not represented by statues nor were they housed in temples before the arrival of Buddhism, which brought many new concepts and practices into Chinese worship. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.17)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8; see figures 8 & 9), the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9; see figure 10), the Stone God of Kang-khau Ward (#S14; see figure 14), the Stone God of Ho-peng Ward (#S15; see figure 15), the stone Granny of Ho-peng Ward (#S16; see figure 16), the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20), the stone Good Brothers of Bah-tau Hamlet (#S22; see figure 23), the Stone God of Khe-te Hamlet (#S34; see figure 36), the Divine Stone of Giong-tek Boulevard (#S41; see figure 43), the Stone God of Pe-hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47), the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54), the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57), the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58), the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60), and the Stone God of Tang-si Town (#S59).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, most divine trees are not housed in temples as well. However, the Tree God and Goddess of Kui-sin Village (#T7; see figure 72), the Tree God of Tiong-san Ward (#T9; see figure 74), and the Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Lam-kian West Road</st1:address></st1:street> (#T34; see figure 101) are exceptions. Since the original trees that initiated the cults died, the believers moulded deity statues or tablets for these divine trees to worship in temples. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.18)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nevertheless, Ling Shun-sheng (1964:39) points out that it is a survival of Zhongliu, a light-well usually made through the centre of the ceiling of a cave for getting light in. In the ancient times, sacrifices were made to deities mostly at altars without a roof. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.19)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In addition, the idea that the Stone Monkey was magically impregnated by the pure essences of Heaven and the fine scents of Earth, the vigor of sunshine and the grace of moonlight might also show the influence of the "She" Cult. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.20)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25), the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27), and the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.21)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26) and the stone Good Brothers of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S26; see figure 28). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.22)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">That is the Stone God of Tiong-guan Ward (#S19; see figure 19). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.23)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For this discussion, please see Chapter Four for details. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-57662327063995290062008-02-06T03:26:00.000-08:002008-02-17T03:28:27.556-08:00Chapter Nine: Conclusion<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p><br />I. Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The previous chapters reflect the fact that the textual data relating to Chinese divine stones and trees are limited and thus that it is difficult to understand these three deities by studying the texts alone. On the other hand, since the worship of the divine stones and trees is rather marginal in Chinese world, it is not plausible to grasp the belief only by field research.(note.1) Consequently, in the thesis, I made efforts to study the divine stones and trees from many points of view. Hopefully, they can, together, offer a new comprehension of these deities.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In this concluding chapter, I shall first set a typology for the divine stones and trees included in study here. I shall also summarise the findings from the previous studies to explain how and why the three deities were anthropomorphised, historicised, and standardised. Then, I demonstrate that common people only partly accept the authority of the standardised written accounts and take them as one of their authorities. Besides them, they have many authorities to follow. Finally, I discuss the recent changes of the divine stones and trees in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">II. Typology of the Deities:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">So far, we realise that the Land God represented by a stone and/or tree is often mixed up with the Stone God and/or the Tree God, or even with other divine stones and trees since they are closely connected. However, these deities can be distinguished according to their legends, traits, functions, images, deification legends, the dates of birthday festivals and so on: <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">1, The Land God represented by a stone and/or tree:(note.2) The term "the Land God" is a title of office and not the honourific of a specific person. If loyal to his community, any person may be promoted to an office after his death. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> the Land God is usually represented by a statue, picture, stone or tree. If being represented by a statue or picture, he is depicted as a kind, local elder with a long white beard. If represented by a stone, he is called "Chio Tho.-ti- kong" ("stone Land God") or "chio kong" ("stone god"). He is called "Chhiu kong" ("tree god") if represented by a tree. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The main task of the God is to look after the piece of land he governs. He is traditionally conceived of as in charge of a specific geographically defined jurisdiction, within which his duties are usually compared by informants to those of a "local policeman" or "local junior official". <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Probably because Chinese believe that souls dwell somewhere under the land, in <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region> and generally in southeastern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the grave site is guarded by the Land God who is called "the Earth Governor" ("Houtu"; see figure 112) in this context. Besides, he is traditionally regarded as the guardian of wandering souls, of family, of business, and of community. Indeed, he is indispensable to everything concerning the land. However, for a number of reasons noted in the previous chapters, he is not favoured as a parent for nominal adoption. Moreover, the Land God, though bound by the social ethics or morality, is sometimes connected with gambling. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In addition, since both the "She" Cult and Ancestor Worship are offshoots of the ancient Chinese fertility cult, some shrines of the Land God look like the tombs of ancestors and most stones were chosen to represent him had a human or cylindrical form. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">2, The Stone God and the Tree God:(note.3) The second type of divine stones and trees are those who are treated as the Stone God and the Tree God. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, divine trees of this type are typically called "Tua-chhiu-kong" ("the Tree God") or "Chhiu kong" ("tree god"). Divine stones of this type are usually called "Chio-thau-kong" ("the Stone God") or "chio kong" ("stone god"). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In Chapter Two, we saw that Chinese divine stones and trees are commonly connected with fertilizing capability. In <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>, they are also traditionally regarded as the guardians of children who suffer health problems. Usually, higher-ranking deities with great protective power and goddesses with maternal nature are preferred as the nominal parents. The Stone and Tree Gods, though belonging to the lower ranks and thus having little hierarchical power, are widely favoured to be nominal parents, because people hope their unhealthy children might grow as strong as the Stone God and as big as the Tree God. This might be a functional extension of the life-giving stones described in Chapter Two. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">While retaining their geological or botanical forms, most stones and trees are regarded as the Stone God or the Tree God because they evoked the sense of reverence by performing miracles, being on special locations, with unusual origins and with unusual appearances etc. Nonetheless, because they are less influenced by standardised written accounts, the deity statues and legends that anthropomorphise and historicise them share a few features in common. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">These two deities, together with the Third Prince, Jigong, and so on, are not bound by the officially approved morality and are outside the orthodox interpretation. Thus, they are favoured by the Bettors as the guardians of the Lottery to reveal the winning numbers.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Just as ancient "She" altars were set in the open air in order to get the fructifying forces of heaven, in many localities, the Stone God and the Tree God are preferably left open to the sky. However, this does not necessarily show that they are the surviving examples of the "She" Cult, since they perhaps developed out of the ancient worship of natural objects or other origins. Moreover, as explained in the previous chapters, the present cults of the Stone God and the Tree God are quite unlike the "She" Cult and no worshipers I interviewed told me that their cults come from the "She" Cult. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">3, Stones and trees identified with deities other than the Land God, the Stone God, and the Tree God:(note.4) There are some divine stones and trees regarded as deities other than the Land God, the Stone God, and the Tree God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">There is no specific term for this type of god, but normally these deities are called "the stone [...]" or "the tree [...]" according to their identifications. For instance, a standing stone wrapped with a red ribbon is worshipped by local gamblers on the sea <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">shore</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ho-peng</st1:placename></st1:place> Ward as a stone deity (#S16; see figure 16). Because the appearance of the stone resembles a goddess, she is sometimes identified as Mazu (the Granny) and sometimes as Guanyin. Anyway, if identified as Mazu, she is called "the stone Mazu" and if identified as Guanyin, the stone is called "the stone Guanyin". If a stone is identified as "the Good Brothers", it is called "the stone Good Brothers" (e.g. #S22, #S24, #S26). By the same token, the stone which is identified as a divine turtle, is called "the stone Turtle" (#S56; see figure 61). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">If a stone or tree belonging to this type is identified with any higher-ranking deity, it is regarded as having great protective power and thus become a guardian of children, that is, a nominal parent (e.g. #S45).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">However, since they are not deified because of moral deeds, in the past several years some of them have been endowed with a new function as gambling deities. That is, they can reveal the winning numbers of the Lottery to gamblers so that they can bet and win (e.g. #S41, #S46, #S56, #S57). Furthermore, because these stones and trees are identified with various deities, their dates of birthday festivals, images, and legends also vary. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">III. Anthropomorphisation, Historicisation, and Standardisation:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For the interpretation of Zong and Bi, the ancient jade symbols, Fitzgerald (1961:126) comments that:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The ancient Chinese did not make anthropomorphic images of their gods, their religious symbolism was governed by mathematical and abstract conceptions, consequently the jade symbols do not readily suggest to the modern mind the ideas which they were intended to represent. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">By the same token, the "She", which consists of three essences: earth, stone, and tree, was obviously a worship of natural objects or a fertility cult and not likely to indicate anthropomorphic conceptions in ancient times. However, as I emphasised in the previous chapters, since at least the Shang or Zhou Period, most divine natural features have been anthropomorphised and identified with former kings, the cultural heroes, or deified ancestors. The Land God, being usually identical with the "She", is not an exception. Even though in some localities, he is represented by a stone and/or tree, if represented by a statue or picture, the Land God is usually depicted as a mild-faced, kind old man with a long white beard, wearing a round cap and the costume of a local elder. The Land God is usually worshipped with his wife. Beside the couple, two attendants - a boy and a girl - are also enshrined. He is sometimes even venerated with a concubine and a son.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The Land God is not only anthropomorphised, but also historicised. Through the legends I studied before, he is articulated with names, birthplaces, occupations, and deeds leading to deification. What is significant is that in the legends he is again and again attached with the time he lived in the world. Additionally, in one of the legends, he is even connected with the Mid-autumn Ethnic Revolt against the Mongol Yuan Administration and it is said that today every family worships the Land God and eats pumeloes at the Mid-Autumn Festival. This is in memory of the Revolt and the Land God. Therefore, in order to emphasise that he was a genuine human being, these legends make every effort to put him into a Chinese historical context. For Chinese people, history means authority. The conducts written into history are something real and unchangeable. With historicisation, these legends become real and unchangeable. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, from the previous chapters, we find that the dates of the birthday festivals of almost all stones and trees representing the Land God are the same. These birthday festivals are held on the second day of the second lunar month, on the second day of the eighth month and/or on the fifteenth day or sixteenth day of the eighth lunar month. I attribute the reason that the dates of birthday festivals for the Land God are so unified, and that the God is commonly depicted as a local elder loyal to the piece of land he governs, to be the result of standardisations. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From Watson's study, we realise that the Heavenly Empress was standardised by a mechanism constituted by local elites, state authorities, and written accounts. However, from the studies of the previous chapters, we learn that the Cult of the Land God is standardised by more than one mechanism. From the analysis of festival dates, we see that people follow only one date standardised in the Almanac and identify the other date with the autumn rite of the "She". The Almanac and local leaders who sponsor and promulgate the new versions of the Almanac serve to set the standards for the date of the Land God's birthday festival. The "She", which was also a state standardised cult since at least the Zhou Dynasty, also influenced the other date of the Land God's birthday festival. Furthermore, from the analysis of images of the Land God, we observe his statues are standardised by the "deity statue image book" in the sculpture workshop. Moreover, because he is popular enough to interest local leaders, his deification legends are standardised to some extent by local leaders. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The stones and trees treated as the second type, that is, as the Stone God and the Tree God, are also influenced by anthropomorphism. They are typically entitled as "kong" such as "Chio-thau-kong" or "Tua-chhiu-kong". The term "kong" is an appellation consisting of several meanings. It literally means "grandfather". It is also a polite term of address for men that is used in a variety of social circumstances. In late-Ming vernacular fictions, it is most commonly applied to old men (Shahar 1993:23). However, the word "kong" has religious connotations. It refers to male deities considered anthropomorphically. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In addition to the anthropomorphical title "kong", these divine stones and trees are anthropomorphised by representation in anthropomorphical deity statues. For example, the statue of the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7; see figure 7) is portrayed as a red faced, white eyebrowed, white bearded old man with a double-edged sword on his hand. The statue of the Stone Divine Grandfather of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Pat-po</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#S9; see figure 10) is depicted as an old long-bearded, red-faced general, riding a white horse with a big sabre in his hands. The statue of the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54) is engraved in the form of a literate general. It is noteworthy that none of the above images is included the "deity statue image book" mentioned in Chapter Three. The sculptor himself in deity statue workshop has to create the images of the stones and trees treated as the this type. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Many of the natural objects classified into this type have also been historicised. For instance, both the Stone God of Lai- o. District (#S43; see figure 45) and the Stone General of Tan- khe Rural-town (#S8; see figures 8 & 9) are proclaimed to be "the Grandfather of Yellow Stone" ("Ui Jio Kong"), the mysterious teacher of a famous historical hero Zhang Liang of the Han Dynasty. However, they are not standardised. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">We noted that the Land God is worshipped on almost every piece of land, but the name and the dates of birthday festival for the Land God are unified. On the contrary, the names and the dates of the birthday festivals of the Stone God and the Tree God are various. Even though divine stones of this type are usually called "the Stone God", they are variously called "the Stone Grandfather", "the Stone Buddha", "the Stone General", "the Stone Divine Grandfather", "the Emperor of Six Areas", "the Literate and Militant Emperor", "the Grandfather of Yellow Stone", or "the Wind-moving Stone" due to different localities or some other reasons. Similarly, even though divine trees of this type are usually called "the Tree God", they are variously called "the Pine King", "the Banyan Grandfather", "the Beech Grandfather", "the Banyan God", "the Divine Tree", "the Banyan Tree Goddess", or "the Tree King" due to different localities or some other reasons. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Most of the divine stones or trees belonging to the third type are also anthropomorphised and historicised. For example, The Autumn Maple of Lam-kang District (#T33; see figure 100) is identified with the God Lyu Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortal Ones (Baxian).(note.5) Moreover, the stone Granny of Ho-peng Award (#S16; see figure 16), the Grandfather of the Ancient Temple of An-lam District (#S40; see figure 42), the stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48), the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam-teng Hamlet (#S49; see figure 52), and the General Chu of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T29; see figure 95), since they are identified as higher-ranking deities, are of course anthropomorphised and historicised. In addition, the natural objects which are treated as "the stone Good Brothers" (#S22, #S24, #S26, #S57) are also anthropomorphised, since the term "Good Brothers" means those who died by violence or without descendants and without virtuous deeds for the society.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nonetheless, there are some deities of this type which, because they are not deified with moral deeds and are thus lower- ranking, are connected with gambling. They are only slightly influenced by anthropomorphism but are not historicised or standardised.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">As we have discussed before, Watson says that the local elites, in order to gentrify themselves, have tried to cooperate with state authorities in the standardisation of cults such as that of the Heavenly Empress (Mazu) and so on. The elevation of the Heavenly Empress and her cult are paralleled by the gradual rise of state authority over <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s southern coastal region (Watson 1985:294). The deities approved and elevated by state authority and local elites were those who were apotheosised because of their ethics or morality before or after death. Therefore, in order to have their deities elevated, those who took more than a casual interest in popular temple affairs made efforts to anthropomorphise and historicise their deities. The anthropomorphisation, historicisation, and standardisation of the Land God and higher-ranking deities provide good examples.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Even though the imperial system was terminated in 1912 and the Nationalist Government does not openly approve any cults, the situation has not changed much. The religious attitudes of the present government are reflected in the textbooks of the national compulsory education. According to the viewpoint of the textbooks, the "true" religions are those that uphold the social order, public opinion, morality and law. They all stress avoiding evil and doing good (Meyer 1987:47). Moreover, Taiwanese local leaders, defined here as traditional upper middle class such as politicians, entrepreneurs, and others are still zealous to spend money and time on local cults as a way of gaining status without imperial sponsorship. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Consequently, those deities who are not popular enough do not interest local leaders. These deities are, thus, much freer from the standardised interpretation than the Land God. People may, according to their own conceptions, provide the deities with different and new interpretations, and therefore endow them with different images, legends, functions, and dates of birthday festival. Being much freer from the standardised interpretation, these stone and tree deities can be interpreted more flexibly. Under the impact of the rapid social changes in these decades, they are interpreted as the guardian of gambling. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">IV. the Mechanism and Authorities of Common People:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Based on the studies in the previous chapters, we observe that the state, local literate elites, and written accounts served as the mechanism to standardise the local religious culture in imperial times. The influence of the standardisation has been in effect even until now. However, from the studies of the deities who are not popular enough to attract local leaders' attention, we discover that, besides the mechanism dominated by elites, common people have their own mechanism to sustain their religious culture. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">For example, the education in modern schools ignores the significance of turtle and crane recorded in classical Chinese mythology, but, temple and family education instructed by senior relatives serves as the mechanism to reproduce their significance. Senior relatives are the instructors from whom children can learn religious knowledge such as the proper way to carry out rituals, the legends of cultural heroes, and the bureaucratic ranking of deities. The religious knowledge in all aspects defines the turtle and crane as sacred symbols consisting of intrinsic mystery. As a result, the conception of the two mythical animals' cultural significance is shaped. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the analysis of the birthday festival dates of the divine stones and trees, we also notice that common people have their own mechanism to identify the dates. Two birthday festival dates for the Land God are standardised in the Almanac, but common people accept only one date (the second day of the second month) and ignore the other date (the sixteenth day of the twelfth lunar month). The acceptance of yet another date (either the second day or the fifteen day of the eighth lunar month) shows the influence of the autumn rite of the "She", which was also a state fostered cult, but different from the second date standardised in the Almanac.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Moreover, without the standardised account, common people can still identify the dates by numerous ways, by the instructions of shamans, of religious specialists and others. Even without these specialists, they can identify the dates with the same birthdays of some goddesses who are also guardians of children; they can believe they are following the traditional dates of the birthdays of the Stone and Tree Gods; they can use the temple inauguration dates as birthday festival dates; or they can decide which dates are convenient for them to hold festivals.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the study of the religious custom of the nominal adoption of unhealthy children, we can observe that common people have their own mechanism to choose deities. Higher-ranking deities who are elevated by the state authority and believed to have great power are suitable for being nominal parents. However, besides these powerful deities, common people also prefer their children to be nominally adopted by the Stone and Tree Gods who, although with little hierarchical power, can serve children with their intrinsic appearance physical strength which is more direct and concrete than the Higher-ranking ones.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">From the analysis of Chinese wealth gods, we also find that common people have their own choice. There are various deities who serve as wealth gods. Guan'gong, for instance, is believed to be mighty in bringing wealth. But those who worship him should commit to the spirit of justice and loyalty after prosperity arrives. The Land God is also venerated as a wealth god, since prosperity and wealth depend on the quality of the crops and on the peace of the community. However, besides worshipping these two standardised deities, common people sometimes choose to worship the Good Brothers, the Stone and Tree Gods, the Third Prince, and the Crazy Monk for wealth, because these are not bound by the officially approved morality. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Therefore, we find that there are various authorities in the mechanism of the common people's decision making process. The religious specialist such as the shaman or fortune-teller, for example, is one of these authorities. S/he can instruct people what date the birthday festival should be; can declare if a child is "fundamentally weak" or not; can recommend what kind of nominal adoption one should engage in; can decide what natural objects should be deified; and can predict the winning numbers of the Lottery. The senior relative is also an authority. S/he is the instructor of popular religious culture and carrier of local tradition. S/he can judge if a child is "fundamentally weak" or not and recommend a nominal adoption. S/he can decide a local shrine should be initiated or not. S/he can even become a nominal parent. Moreover, intuition is an authority. It can decide whether an ordinary stone or tree is divine or not. It can give hints of winning numbers. Besides, local traditions, miracles, the divination instruments depicted in Chapter Seven are also held by common people as their authorities. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In sum, the previous chapters of this thesis demonstrate that common people only partly accept the authority of the standardised written accounts fostered by elites and local leaders, and take it as only one of their authorities. Besides it, they have their own mechanism to sustain their religious culture and have their own authorities to follow. The investigation of this mechanism and/or authorities can be easily overlooked if we limit our studies to the religious cultures dominated by the elites. Furthermore, the mechanism fostered by the state and elites seemed to serve as a carrier of messages such as civilization, order, and loyalty to the state, that is, "keeper" of social values. On the contrary, the authorities preferred by common people can serve as "challengers" to those who are privileged and who set social values (see also Chapter Three and Chapter Seven).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">V. Recent Changes of the Divine Stones and Trees:<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Since that they contain intrinsic mystery and due to the prevalence of the "Everybody Happy Lottery", many stones and trees continue to be deified and worshipped. However, I am concerned about the recent changes of the divine stones and trees included in my field work. In 1994, when I came to Tan-suan Rural-town to do research on the Emperor of Six Areas (#S10), I could not find the temple where the divine stone was located. Fortunately, I was told that the original temple had been destroyed and the Emperor of Six Areas had been moved to a temple for the God Sam-san Kok-ong (the Kings of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Three</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Mountains</st1:placetype></st1:place>). I found the temple later on but still did not find the divine stone on the altar. The custodian told me that a couple of years ago when the temple was becoming well-financed, villagers moulded a statue for the Emperor of Six Areas and the stone had been set into the statue. Today, though the cult is still popular, we can no longer see the original stone. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The two stone chambers for the worship of the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27) and the stone Good Brothers of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S26; see figure 28) were gracefully located under an Autumn Maple tree at E-kham-te Hamlet. However, in 1996, the road beside the chambers is expected to be widened and the chambers are supposed to be moved away. People there decided to build a temple to worship the Land God and the Good Brothers. I asked them how they will deal with the stone chambers after the temple is built? They answered that they will bury the chambers under the temple. Accordingly, we might no longer see the dolmens. Similarly, the stone chamber of the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22) is going to be buried under the new temple when villagers there raise enough funds to build one. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The divine trees are also not in good condition. From the previous chapters we see that the original trees for the worship of the Tree God of <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Lam-kian West Road</st1:address></st1:street> (#T34; see figure 101), the Tree God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Kui-sin</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T7; see figure 72), and the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68) have all died. Nowadays, they are only represented by a statue or tablet.(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">We know that the Pine King of Chong-ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67) is located in front of the big <st1:placetype st="on">temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Khai-chiang- seng-ong</st1:placename> (literally, the First Divine Patriarch of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chiang-</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">chiu</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Prefecture</st1:placetype></st1:place>). In recent decades, the front yard of the big temple has been paved over with cement. Unfortunately, the pressure of the cement blocked up the channels that brought water to the roots. Since then the divine tree gradually withered. Similarly, the trunk of the Autumn Maple God of Lam-kang District (#T33; see figure 99) is surrounded by the concrete temple building. The concrete restricts the spread of branches and roots of the divine tree. For a long time this tree has had no vitality.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">I was told that the divine tree for the worship of the Tree God of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Thau-hun</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place> (#T4; see figure 69) was so large that we could see it at a far distance. However, about ten years ago the trunk of the tree was knocked down by a bolt of lightning. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">In spite of the above, people of some localities are in need to protect their trees. The case of the divine tree of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73) is a notable example. The tree located at Kang-khau Ward of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Toucheng</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place> was virtually a symbol of the town. When you saw it from a train or car, you knew you were coming to Toucheng. When the tree sprouted new shoots, it meant that the people there could go to the sea and net a big catch of larval fish. In days past, kids would often break off a sprig and eat it as a snack (Chang Chin-ju 1993b:91).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Unfortunately, since the road beside the divine tree became the major thoroughfare between <st1:placename st="on">Taipei</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype> and <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Yilan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> several years ago, traffic on the road has gradually become heavy. Therefore, the <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Taiwan Highway</st1:address></st1:street> Bureau intended to widen this road and ordered that the tree be moved away from the road. People there were so angry about this order that they shouted: "Was the road or the tree there first? If you want the tree to go, let it walk away by itself. Otherwise, we will protect where its roots grow, protect where its branches extend" (Chang Chin-ju 1993b:91). Consequently, the <st1:street st="on"><st1:address st="on">Taiwan Highway</st1:address></st1:street> Bureau changed its plan and moved the widened new road west to avoid the territory where the tree is rooted.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">But things did not end here. A typhoon knocked half of the trunk of the tree down and left its roots exposed to the air. Today, the residents of the Town still wait for the tree to sprout and regain its vitality (Chang Chin-ju 1993b:90). However, the present director of the Forestry Department at the Chinese Culture University who is also a teacher of the subject for many decades, says that when large trees are isolated, standing alone in fields, on flat wastes, or in urban areas, then these trees are the most exposed targets for the bolts of lightnings or strong typhoons (Chang Chin-ju <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1993" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1993a</st1:chmetcnv>:79).<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">Nevertheless, some divine trees are more fortunate. In order to protect them from lightning, people installed lightning rods beside some divine trees (e.g. #T19, #T39).(note.7) Moreover, some temples (e.g. #T39, #T1, #T22, #T26) where divine trees are located have become gathering places for the elderly. At any time, we can find them gathered there, whiling away the hours chatting, playing chess or practising their calligraphy. The elderly can invite their friends from outside the village into the temple to drink tea and chat, where, though their children may be off on their own, they can still find company, drink tea and chew on betel nuts. Life cannot be any more comfortable than the life there. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">--------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.1) <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The data collected from the field work in 1992<st1:chmetcnv unitname="in" sourcevalue="1994" hasspace="True" negative="True" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">-1994 in</st1:chmetcnv> <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> reveal that many divine stones in this island are still considered as having evil-warding or fertilizing capability. However, probably due to the limitation of the field research, no divine stone is regarded as rain-making or good-geomancy-bringing as recorded in Chinese textual references reviewed in Chapter Two. Similarly, divine trees in Taiwan are still venerated as miracle trees, the Land God, or temple tree of the Land God etc. But none of them is considered as geomancy tree. I think the reason that there is not the belief of rain-making stone might be because Taiwan has abundant rainfall year-round, it is not necessary to pray for rain- making. By the same token, the lack of geomancy stone and tree might be because this island has one of the highest population densities in the world, and there is no space for the geomancy stones and trees. However, there is a need for further investigation. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.2)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the stone Land God of Pei-go Village (#S12; see figure 12), the stone Land God of Tua-un Village (#S13; see figure 13), the stone Land God of Chhen-the Lane (#S21; see figures 21 & 22), the stone Land God of San-tiau Hill (#S23; see figure 25), the stone Land God of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S25; see figure 27), the stone Land God of E-huan Field (#S28; see figure 30), the stone Land God of Sin-hong Ward (#S29; see figure 31), the stone Land God of Chui- bue-a Hamlet (#S30; see figure 32), the stone Land God of Ai-liau Hamlet (#S31; see figure 33), the stone Land God of Phek-chiu Ward (#S32; see figure 34), the stone Land God of Chhien-kah Ward (#S39; see figure 41), the stone Land God of Tong-an Street (#S42; see figure 44), the stone Land God of Tua-kham Village (#S51; see figure 55), the stone Land God of Tiang-ken Village (#S53; see figure 58), the stone Land God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S54; see figure 59), the stone Land God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S61; see figure 65), the tree Land God of In-suan Street (#T11; see figure 76), the tree Land God of the East Gate (#T12; see figure 77), the tree Land God of Pak-li Rural-town (#T35; see figure 102), and the Elderly Tree of Pak-li Rural-town (#T36; see figure 103). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the Stone Goddess of Pak-biau Ward (#S1; see figure 1), the Stone Goddess of Ka-seng Ward (#S2; see figure 2), the Stone Grandfather of Ka-seng Ward (#S3; see figure 3), the Stone Goddess of Lek-biau Ward (#S4; see figure 4), the Stone Buddha of Uan-lim Town (#S5; see figure 5), the Stone God of Sia-thau Rural-town (#S6; see figure 6), the Stone God of Kim-eng Ward (#S7; see figure 7), the Stone General of Tan-khe Rural-town (#S8; see figures 8 & 9), the Stone Divine Grandfather of Pat-po Village (#S9; see figure 10), the Emperor of Six Areas of Tan-suan Rural-town (#S10), the Stone God of Jin-ho Village (#S11; see figure 11), the Stone God of Kang-khau Ward (#S14; see figure 14), the Stone God of Ho-peng Ward (#S15; see figure 15), the Stone God of Tek-san Town (#S17; see figure 17), the Stone God of Ka-lo Ward (#S18; see figure 18), the Stone God of Tiong-guan Ward (#S19; see figure 19), the Stone God of Tho.-sian Ward (#S20; see figure 20), the Stone God of Sin-hong Ward (#S27; see figure 29), the Stone God of Sion-lim Ward (#S33; see figure 35), the Stone God of Khe-te Hamlet (#S34; see figure 36), the Stone God of Ka-hin Ward (#S35; see figure 37), the Stone God of Ka-ho Ward (#S36; see figure 38), the Stone God of Hi-ti Rural-town (#S37; see figure 39), the Literate and Militant Emperor of Po.-ho Village (#S38; see figure 40), the Grandfather of Yellow Stone of Lai-o. District (#S43; see figure 45), the Stone God of Pe-hun Ward (#S44; see figures 46 & 47), the Stone God of Pak-tau District (#S47; see figure 50), the Wind-moving Stone of Bak-sa District (#S48; see figure 51), the Stone God of Su-Lim District (#S50; see figures 53 & 54), the Stone God of Pat-li Rural-town (#S52; see figures 56 & 57), the Stone God of Gien-kiu-in Road (#S55; see figure 60), the Stone God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#S58; see figure 63), the Stone God of Tang-si Town (#S59), the Stone God of Hong-guan City (#S60; see figure 64), The Tree God of Uan-lim Town (#T1; see figure 66), the Pine King of Chong-ui Rural-town (#T2; see figure 67), the Tree God of Peng-ho Ward (#T3; see figure 68), the Tree God of Thau-hun Village (#T4; see figure 69), the Tree God of Siong-tek Village (#T5; see figure 70), the Tree God of Kim-bin Ward (#T6; see figure 71), the Tree God of Kui-sin Village (#T7; see figure 72), the Tree God of Kang-khau Ward (#T8; see figure 73), the Tree God of Tiong-san Ward (#T9; see figure 74), the Tree God of So.-o Urban-town (#T10; see figure 75), the Banyan Grandfather of Ka-lo Ward (#T13; see figure 78), the Tree God of Tun-ho Ward (#T14; see figure 79), the Tree God of To.-sian Ward (#T15; see figure 80), the Beech Grandfather of Pak-si Ward (#T16; see figure 81), the Tree God of Sin-hong Ward (#T17; see figure 82), the Banyan God of Sion-lim Ward (#T18; see figure 83), the Divine Tree of Pen-teng Ward (#T19; see figure 84), the Tree God of Gue-bai Hamlet (#T20; see figure 86), the Tree God of Khe-te (#T21; see figure 87), the Tree God of Cho.-su Lane (#T22; see figure 88), the Tree God of Uan-chip Road (#T23; see figure 89), the Tree God of Lo-chui Village (#T24; see figure 90), the Tree God of Chhau- lian Lane (#T25; see figure 91), the Tree God of Ho-peng Ward (#T26; see figure 92), the Banyan Tree Goddess of Thong-liang Village (#T27; see figure 93), the Tree God of Chap-ji Field (#T28; see figure 94), the Tree King of Sai-kang Rural-town (#T30; see figure 96), the Tree God of Ka-li Town (#T31; see figure 97), the Tree God of Chheng-bek Ward (#T32; see figure 98), the Tree God of Lam-kian West Road (#T34; see figure 101), the Tree God of Lam-huin Ward (#T37), the Tree God of Chhau-o. Hamlet (#T38; see figure 104), and the Tree King of Tai-li Rural-town (#T39; see figure 105). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.4)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">They are: the stone Granny of Ho-peng Ward (#S16; see figure 16), the stone Good Brothers of Bah-tau Hamlet (#S22; see figure 23), the stone Good Brothers of San-tiau Hill (#S24; see figure 26), the stone Good Brothers of E-kham-te Hamlet (#S26; see figure 28), the Grandfather of the Ancient Temple of An-lam District (#S40; see figure 42), the Divine Stone of Giong-tek Boulevard (#S41; see figure 43), the stone Granny of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S45; see figure 48), the White Crane Immortal of Chhim-khen Rural-town (#S46; see figure 48), the First Divine Patriarch of Chiang-chiu District of Chiam-teng Hamlet (#S49; see figure 52), the stone Turtle of Ken-ki Road (#S56; see figure 61), the Stone God of Tham- te Ward (#S57; see figure 62), the General Chu of Sai-kang Rural- town (#T29; see figure 95), and the Autumn Maple God of Lam-kang District (#T33; see figure 99). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.5)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">According to a hagiography cited by Katz (1993), Xiangong was born on the fourteenth day of the fourth lunar month in the town of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Yunluo</st1:place></st1:city> and was the grandson of Lyu Wei. The given name of the god was Lyu Yian, but he later adopted the zi (style name) Dongbin. After becoming a Taoist he used the Taoist name Chunyang, which means "Purified Yang", and also occasionally referred to himself as Hui Daoren (Taoist Hui) in a form of wordplay on his surname (Katz 1993:6). The first sources to mention Xiankong date from the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty. Therefore, it is suspected that the cult of Xiangong had begun to take shape during the waning years of the Five Dynasties period.<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">At <st1:placetype st="on">Mt.</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Lu</st1:placename> (in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Jiangxi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>) he encountered an anonymous "divine immortal" (Shenxian) who transmitted to him a form of sword-play and various longevity techniques which enabled Sian'gong himself to become an immortal one (Katz 1993:7). <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.6)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The original deified tree for the worship of the Tree God of Tiong-san Ward (#T9) is also dead. However, the way in which the cult is different from the previous three localities is that the believers of the tree chose a new tree and planted it to replace the original tree when it died and continued to worship the new tree (see figure 74) as the Tree God. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">(note.7)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Arial;" lang="EN-US">The cost of each rod is about NT$ 700,000 (Chang Chin-ju <st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1993" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on">1993a</st1:chmetcnv>:76). </span></b></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3057759536815114170.post-40385954874412182292008-02-05T03:29:00.000-08:002008-02-17T03:31:16.524-08:00Bibliography<span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ahern, E.M. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1973 The Cult of the Dead in a <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chinese</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1981 "The Thai Ti Kong Festival." 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In The Encyclopedia of Religion. editor in chief: Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Bodman, Nicholas C.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1955 Spoken <st1:place st="on">Amoy</st1:place> Hokkien. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Kuala Lumpur</st1:place></st1:city>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Bonsall, B.S.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1934 Confucianism and Taoism. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: The Epworth Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Bredon, J. & I. Mitrophanom <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1927 The Moon Year. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, Limited. Reprinted by <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Brim, J.A.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "Village Alliance Temples in <st1:place st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place>." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.93-103. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Burkhardt, V.R.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1958a</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> Chinese Creeds & Customs. vol.I. Hong Kong: the South China Morning Post, LTD. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1958b Chinese Creeds & Customs. vol.II. Hong Kong: the South China Morning Post, LTD. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1958" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1958c</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> Chinese Creeds & Customs. vol.III. Hong Kong: the South China Morning Post, LTD. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chamberlayne, J.H.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1966 "The Chinese Earth-Shrine." Numen. vol.13. pp.164-182. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chang, Chin-ju <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1993" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993a</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> "Breathing Relics - Conserving Old Trees in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." (tran. by Christopher Hughes). Sinorama Magazine. 18:14. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Sinorama Magazine. pp.76-85. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993b "Holding Their Ground: The old Banyans of Ilan." (tran. by Christopher Hughes). Sinorama Magazine. 18:14. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Sinorama Magazine. pp.87-93. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chard, Robert L.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "The Stove God and The Overseer of Fate." paper presentedto International Conference on Popular Beliefs andChinese Culture. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chen, Chi-lu <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1972 "History of Chinese Immigration into <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Spring). no.33. pp.119-133.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chiu, Milton M.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Taiwanese Religions." In The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief: Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chow Tse-tsung <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1978 "The Childbirth Myth and Ancient Chinese Medicine: a study of aspects of the wu tradition." In Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>: Studies in Early Civilization. Ed. D.T. Roy & Tsuen-hsuin Tsien. H.K.: The <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chinese</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.60-74.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Chuang, Ying-chang <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Ch'ing Dynasty Chinese Immigration to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>: An Anthropological Perspective." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Autumn). no. 64. pp.178- 196.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1988 "Settlement Patterns of the Hakka Migration to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>: The Case of the T'ou-fen Ch'en Family." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Academia Sinica: (Autumn). no.66. pp.169-93.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Cohen, A.P.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1978 "Coercing the Rain Deities in Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." History of Religions. vol.17. pp.244-65.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Chinese Religion: Popular Religion." The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief: Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Copper, J.F.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1990 <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>: Nation-State or Province? <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: West-view Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Cormack, J.G.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1927) 1974 Chinese Birthday, Wedding, Funeral, and other Customs. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Ch'eng Wen Publishing.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Davis, L.S.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1992 The Eccentric Structure of Shamanism: An Ethnography of Taiwanese Ki-Thong, With Reference to the Philosophical Anthropology of Helmuth Plessner. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Harvard</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">USA</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Day, C.B.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 Chinese Peasant Cults: Being a Study of Chinese Paper Gods. N.Y.: Paragon Book Gallery. Reprinted by <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">DeGlopper, S.R.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "Religion and Ritual in Lukang." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.43-69.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Devereux, E.C. Jr.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1968 "Gambling." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. ed. D.L. Sills. The Macmillan Company & The Free Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Diamond, Norma <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1969 K'un Shen: A <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taiwan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Dore, Henry <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 Chinese Customs. (Tran. from French by M. Kennelly). <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Singapore</st1:place></st1:country-region>: Graham Brash Publishers.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Duara, Prasenjit <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1988 "Superscribing Symbols: the Myth of Guandi, Chinese God of War." The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol.47, no.4, pp.778-795.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Dudbridge, Glen <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1990 "The Goddess Hua-Yueh San-niang and the Cantonese Ballad Ch'en-hsiang T'ai-tzu." Chinese Studies. Vol.8 no.1. pp.627-46. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Eberhard, Wolfram <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1970 Studies in Chinese Folklore and Related Essays. <st1:city st="on">Bloomington</st1:city>: Published by <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Indiana</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Research</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Center</st1:placetype></st1:place> for the Language Sciences.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1971 Moral and Social Values of the Chinese -- Collected Essays. Distributed by Chinese Materials and Research Aids Service Center, Inc. Published by <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Edsman, Carl-Martin <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Stones." (Tran. from Swedish by David Mel Paul and Margareta Paul). In The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief: Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Elder, G.R.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Phallus."In The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief: Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Eliade, Mircea <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1958 Patterns in Comparative Religion. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: Sheed & Ward.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. Tran. from the French by Willard R. Trask. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: Horper& Brothers.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1954) 1989 The Myth of the Eternal Return: Cosmos and History, tran. W.R. <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Trask</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Great Britain</st1:country-region></st1:place>: ARKANA.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Eliade, Mircea and L. E. Sullivan <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Hierophany." In The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Erkes, Eduard <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1931 "Some Remarks on Karlgren's Fecundity Symbols in Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Museum</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Far East</st1:placename></st1:place> Antiquities. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Stockholm</st1:place></st1:city>. No.2. pp.63-8. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Feng, Hui-t'ien <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1970 "The Tree Temples of Chin-hua (<st1:place st="on">Chekiang</st1:place>)" In Studies in Chinese Folklore and Related Essays. ed. Wolfram Eberhard. <st1:city st="on">Bloomington</st1:city>: Published by <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Indiana</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> <st1:placename st="on">Research</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Center</st1:placetype></st1:place> for the Language Sciences. pp.19-21.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Feuchtwang, Stephan <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1974" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974a</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> An Anthropological Analysis of Chinese Geomancy. <st1:city st="on">Vientiane</st1:city> and <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Paris</st1:place></st1:city>: Vithagna.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974b "Domestic and Communal Worship in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf, <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.105-30.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1977 "School-Temple and City God." In The City in Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. ed. G.W. Skinner. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.103-30.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1992 The Imperial Metaphor: Popular Religion in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <st1:city st="on">London</st1:city> and <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: Routledge.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "Historical Metaphor: A Study of Religious Representation and the Recognition of Authority." Man 28:1. pp. 35-49.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Fitzgerald, C.P.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>: A Short Cultural History. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: The Cresset Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Franz, M.-L. von<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1964) 1990 "The Process of Individuation." In Man and his Symbol. ed. Carl G. Jung. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: ARKANA. pp.158-229.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Frese, P.R. & S.J.M. Gray <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Trees." In The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Mircea Eliade</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">New York</st1:state></st1:place>: Macmillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Fried, M.H.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 Fabric of Chinese Society: A Study of the Social Life of a Chinese County Seat. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: Octagon Books.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Gates, Hill <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1981 "Ethnicity and Social Class." In The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society. eds. E.M. Ahern & Hill Gates. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.241-81.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Giles, H.A.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1905 Religions of Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: Archibald Constable Co. Ltd.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Graesser, C.F.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1972 "Standing Stones in Ancient <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Palestine</st1:place></st1:city>." The Biblical Archaeologist. vol.35. pp.34-63.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Graham</span></b></st1:city><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">, <st1:state st="on">D.C.</st1:state></span></b></st1:place><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1936 "Tree Gods in <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Szechwan</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Province</st1:placetype></st1:place>." Journal of the <st1:place st="on">West China</st1:place> Border Research. Vol.8. pp.59-61.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 Folk Religion in <st1:place st="on">Southwest China</st1:place>. Wahsington: Smithsonian Institution.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Granet, Marcel <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1930 Chinese Civilization. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1922) 1975 The Religion of the Chinese People. Translated, edited and with an Introduction by Maurice Freedman. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Southern Materials Center, Inc.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Harrell, C.S.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "When a Ghost Becomes a God." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society. ed. Arthur P. Wolf. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.193-206.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1977 "Modes of Belief in Chinese Folk Religion." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. vol.16. pp.55-65.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1981 "Social Organization in Hai-shan." In The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society. eds. E.M. Ahern & Hill Gates. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.125-47.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hartland, E.S.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1917a</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> "Phallism." In Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>:<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1917b "Stones: Introductory and Primitive." In Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="C" sourcevalue="1917" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1917c</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> "Games: <st1:place st="on">I.</st1:place> Definition and classification." In Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings, <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hay, John <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1985 Kernels of energy, bones of earth: the rock in Chinese art. <st1:state st="on">New York</st1:state>: China House Gallery; China Institute in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Henderson</span></b></st1:place></st1:city><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">, J.L.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1964) 1990 "Ancient Myths and Modern Man" In Man and His Symbol ed. Carl G. Jung. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: ARKANA. pp.104-157.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Herz, Peter<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1986 "A century Before Cathy: The Dutch in Aboriginal <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Formosa</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Presbyterian. vol.12. pp.17-32.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hodous, Lewis <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1929 (1974) Folkways in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Reprinted by <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hsiao, Kung-chuan <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1960 Rural <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. <st1:city st="on">Seattle</st1:city> & <st1:city st="on">London</st1:city>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Washington</st1:placename></st1:place> Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Hu, Taili <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1991 Burning the Depressiveness. (in Chinese) <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Teacher Zhang's Publishing Company.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Jordan</span></b></st1:place></st1:country-region><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">, D.K.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1972) 1985 Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors: Folk Religion in a <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taiwanese</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>. 2nd Edition. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Caves Books.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1994 "Changes in Postwar <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and Their Impact on the Popular Practice of Religion." In Cultural Change in Postwar <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. ets. S. Harrell & Huang Chun-chieh. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: SMC. Press. pp.137-60.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Jordan</span></b></st1:place></st1:country-region><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">, D.K. and D.L. Overmyer <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1986 The Flying <st1:city st="on">Phoenix</st1:city>: Aspects of Chinese Sectarianism in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Princeton: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Princeton</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Jung, C.G.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1934) 1980 The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Collected Works, Vol. 9. <st1:place st="on"><st2:sn st="on">Part</st2:sn> <st2:sn st="on">I.</st2:sn></st1:place> (Tran. by R.F.C. Hull). <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Kahoe, R.D.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1988 "Ecstatic Religious Experiences." In Psychology and Religion. ed. David G. Benner. <st1:state st="on">Michigan</st1:state> <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Grand Rapids</st1:place></st1:city>: Baker Book house. pp.37-42.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Karlgren, Bernhard <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1930 "Some Fecundity Symbols in Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Museum</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Far East</st1:placename></st1:place> Antiquities. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Stockholm</st1:place></st1:city>. vol.2. pp.1-66.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Katz, P.R.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1990 "Wen Ch'iung - the God of Many Faces." Chinese Studies. Vol.8 no.1. pp.183-220.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1992 "Changes in Wang-yeh Beliefs in Postwar <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>: A Case Study of Two Wang-yeh Temples." Journal of Chinese Religions. (Fall). No. 20. pp.203-14.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "The Interaction Between Ch'uan-chen Taoism and Local Cults: A Case Study of the Yung-lo Kung." paper presented to International Conference on Popular Beliefs and Chinese Culture. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Kooy, V. H.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1985 "Image, Imagery" The interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. editor. in chief, G. A. Buttrick. <st1:country-region st="on">USA</st1:country-region> <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Nashville</st1:place></st1:city>: Abingdon Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Lamley, H.J.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1977 "The Formation of Cities in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." In The City in Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. ed. G.W. Skinner. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.155-210.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1981 "Subethnic Rivalry in the Ch'ing Period." The Anthropology of Taiwanese Society. eds. E.M. Ahern & Hill Gates. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.282-318.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Lin, Mei-rong <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 To-ti-Kong Bio - Chu-luo. e Chi-phiau: i Chhau-tun ui le. (<st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Earth God</st1:placename></st1:place>: the indicator of Hamlet: the Example of Chhau-tun town). 37 (1): <st1:city st="on">Taipei</st1:city>: <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> Folklore. pp.53-81.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1991 (ed.) A Bibliography of Taiwanese Folk Belief. Taiwan History Field Research Office. Resourse & Information Series, No. 3. <st1:city st="on">Taipei</st1:city>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>, Academia Sinica.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Liu Zhiwan<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 Nam-tau Kuan Hon-siot Chi, Chong-kau Pen Ko (The Customs of <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Nam-tau</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">County</st1:placetype></st1:place> -- on Religion). Nam-tau Bun- hen Chong-chip. vol. IX. Nam-tau Bun-hen </span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"></span></b><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">-guan-hue.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ling, Shun-sheng <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1958 "<st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Ancestor</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Temple</st1:placetype></st1:place> and Earth Altar Among the Formosan Aborigines." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Autumn). no.6. pp.1-57.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1959" hasspace="False" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1959a</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> "Origin of the Ancestral <st1:city st="on">Temple</st1:city> in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Spring). no.7. pp.141-84.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1959b "Ancestral Tablet and Genital Symbolism in Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Autumn). no.8. pp.1-46.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1964 "Origin of the Sh?in Ancient <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Spring). no.17. pp.1-44.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1967 The Dolmen Culture of <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>, <st1:place st="on">East Asia</st1:place> and the Southwestern Pacific. <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>, Academia Sinica, Monograph No. 10. <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>, Academia Sinica.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Lo, Vivienne<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "The Legend of the Lady of Linshui." Journal of Chinese Religions. No. 21. Fall. pp.69-96.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Long, Simon <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1991 <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>: <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s Last Frontier. MacMillan Press. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Mabuchi, Toichi <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1970 "<st1:placename st="on">Magico-Religious</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Land</st1:placetype> Ownership in Central Formosa and <st1:place st="on">Southeast Asia</st1:place>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Spring). no.29. pp.349-83.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Maspero, Henri <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1981 Taoism and Chinese Religion. (Trnas. by F.A. Kirerman, Jr.) <st1:country-region st="on">U.S.</st1:country-region>: The <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Massachusetts</st1:placename></st1:place> Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">McFarlane, Stewart <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1984 "<st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>, The Republic of (<st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>), and Hong-Kong, Chinese Religion" The Dictionary of Religions, ed. John R. Hinnells. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: Penguin Books.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Meyer, Jeffrey <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "The Image of Religion in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> Textbooks." Journal of Chinese Religions. (Fall). No. 15. pp.44-53.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Michael, R.B.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1982 "'Linga' as Lord Supreme in the Vacana-s of Basava." Numen. vol.29. pp.202-19.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Mohen, Jean-pierre <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1989 The World of Megaliths. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: Cassell.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Morgan, H.T. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1942 Chinese symbols and Superstitions. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">California</st1:place></st1:state>: P.D. and Lone Perkins. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Overmyer, Daniel L.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Chinese Religion: An overview." The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Pan, Ing-hai <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1989" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1989 A</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> Study on the Pragmatics of Human Understanding: Ritual Processes in a Southern <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Taiwanese</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Ph.D. Dissertation, the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Oregon</st1:placename></st1:place>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Paper</span></b></st1:city><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">, <st1:country-region st="on">Jordan</st1:country-region></span></b></st1:place><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1990 "The Persistence of Female Deities in Patriarchal <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. vol.6. pp.25-40.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Paton. J.L.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1917 "Gambling: <st1:place st="on">I.</st1:place> Diffusion of the practice." Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings, <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>. pp.163-67.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Pearson, Richard <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1970 "Archaeological Survey in <st1:place st="on">Southern Taiwan</st1:place>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Autumn). no.30. pp.317-30.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Potter, J.M.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "Cantonese Shamanism." Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.207-32.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Proksch, Bettina <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1984 Arts and Culture in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Southern Materials Center, Inc. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Sangren, P.S. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1983 "Female Gender in Chinese Religious Symbols: Kuan Yin, Ma Tsu, and the 'Eternal Mother'." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. The <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Chicago</st1:placename></st1:place>. vol.9, no.1. pp.4-25.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1984 "Great Tradition and Little Traditions Reconsidered: The Question of Cultural Integration in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Journal of Chinese Studies. 1:1. pp.1-24.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 History and Magical Power in a Chinese Community. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place>. Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1988 "History and the Rhetoric of Legitimacy: the Ma Tsu Cult of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Comparative Studies in Society and History. vol.30: pp.674-97.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "Gods and Familial Relations: No-cha, Miao-shan, and Mu-lien." paper presented to the International Conference on Popular Beliefs and Chinese Culture, April 27, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Taipei</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region></st1:place>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Schipper, K.M.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1977 "Neighborhood Cult Associations in Traditional <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Tainan</st1:place></st1:city>." In The City in Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. ed. G.W. Skinner. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.651-76.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Shahar, Meir <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "Enlightened Monk or Arch-Magician? -- The Portrayal of the God Jigong in the Sixteenth-Century Novel Jidian Yulu." paper presented to the International Conference on Popular Beliefs and Chinese Culture, April 27, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Taipei</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region></st1:place>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Shepherd, John R.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1984 "Sinicized Siraya Worship of A-li-tsu." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. Academia Sinica: (Autumn). no. 58. pp.1-81.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Smith, D.H.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 "Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty." Numen. vol.8. pp.142-50.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Smith, A.H.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1899) 1969 Village Life in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>: A Study in Sociology. <st1:state st="on">New York</st1:state>: <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Greenwood</st1:place></st1:city> Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Suenari, Michio <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1985 "Two Types of Territorial Organization: A Preliminary Report of a <st1:placename st="on">Hakka</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Village</st1:placetype> in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Bulletin of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Institute</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Ethnology</st1:placename></st1:place>. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Academia Sinica. (Spring). No.59. pp.29-46.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Sutton-Smith, B., J.M. Roberts., and R.M. Kozelka <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1963 "Game Involvements in Adults." Journal of Social Psychology. vol.60. pp.15-30.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Suesse, E.M.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "Divination" In The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor in chief: Mircea Eliade. <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">New York</st1:place></st1:state>: MacMillam. 1987. <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Ta, Yu-shan <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 "Lottery to be reintroduced." The <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> Post. Friday, February 12. page 1.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Thompson, L.G.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1988 "Dream Divination and Chinese Popular Religion." Journal of Chinese Religions. (Fall). No.16. pp.73-82.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Topley, Marjorie <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "Cosmic Antagonisms: A Mother-Child Syndrome." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.233-50.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Tsai, wen-hui <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1979 "Historical Personalities in Chinese Folk Religion: A Exploration in Folklore and Culture." In Legend, Lore, and Religion in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. eds. Sarah Allan & A.P. Cohen. San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, Inc. pp.23-42.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Waley, Arthur (Translated and annotated)<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1971 The Analects of Confucius. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wang, Jia-fong & Li, Laura <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1991 When West Meets East: International Sinology and Sinologists. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Sinorama Magazine.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wang, Jing<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1992 The Story of Stone. Duke University Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wang, Mingming<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1995 "Place, Administration, and Territorial Cults in Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on">China</st1:country-region>: A Case Study From <st1:place st="on">South Fujian</st1:place>." Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Vol. 16, No. 1. pp.33-78.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wang, Shih-ch'ing <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "Religious Organization in the History of a <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chinese</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Town</st1:placetype></st1:place>." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf, <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.71-92.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Watson, <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Burton</st1:place></st1:city> <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 Records of the Grand Historian of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Volume I: Early Years of the Han Dynasty 209-141. (Tran. from the Shih Chi of Ssu-Ma Ch'ien). <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Columbia</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Watson, James L.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1985 "Standardizing the Gods: The Promotion of T'ien Hou (Empress of Heaven) Along the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">South</st1:placename> <st1:placename st="on">China</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Coast</st1:placetype></st1:place>, 960- 1960." In Popular Culture in Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. ed. David Johnson, et. al. <st1:city st="on">Berkeley</st1:city> and <st1:city st="on">Los Angeles</st1:city>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Univ.</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">California</st1:placename></st1:place> Press. pp.293-323.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wei, Henry Yi-min and Suzanne Coutanceau<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1976 Wine for the Gods: An Account of the Religious Traditions and Beliefs of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taipei</st1:place></st1:city>: Cheng Wen Publishing Company.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Weller, R.P.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1982 "Sectarian Religion and Political Action in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." Modern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Vol. 8 No.4, October. pp.463-483.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1985 "Bandits, Beggars, and Ghosts: the Failure of State Control Over Religious Interpretation in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>." American Ethnologist. vol.87. pp.46-61.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 "The Politics of Ritual Disguise: Repression and Response in Taiwanese Popular Religion."Modern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. vol.13. No.1. pp.17-39.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1996 "Matricidal Magistrates and Gambling Gods: <st1:placename st="on">Weak</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">States</st1:placetype> and Strong Spirits in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>." In Unruly Gods - Divinity and Society in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. eds, Meir Shahar and R. P. Weller. <st1:city st="on">Honolulu</st1:city>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Hawai'i</st1:placename></st1:place> Press. pp.250- 68.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Werner, E.T.C.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1977" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1977 A</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> Dictionary of Chinese Mythology. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Boston</st1:place></st1:city>: Longwood Press Inc.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wolf, A.P.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1974 "Gods, Ghosts, and Ancestors." In Religion and Ritual in Chinese Society, ed. Arthur P. Wolf. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.131-82.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wright, A.F.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1977 "The Cosmology of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Chinese</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>." In The City in Late Imperial <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>. ed. G.W. Skinner. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Stanford</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype></st1:place> Press. pp.33-74.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wu, Ch'eng-en <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">(1942) 1965 . Monkey. (tran. by Arthur Waley). <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">London</st1:place></st1:city>: G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Wu, Lien-chin <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 Folk Religion in a Modernizing Society: The Case of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Ph.D. dissertation, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Minnesota</st1:placename></st1:place>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yang, C.K.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1961 Religion in Chinese Society. <st1:state st="on">California</st1:state>: <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">California</st1:placename></st1:place> Press.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yeh, Kaofang <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><st1:chmetcnv unitname="a" sourcevalue="1987" hasspace="True" negative="False" numbertype="1" tcsc="0" st="on"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1987 A</span></b></st1:chmetcnv><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US"> Psychotherapeutic Study of Dang-ki Healing (Taiwanese Shamanism): Cross-cultural Implications For Pastoral Counselors. Ph.D. Dissertation. The <st1:placetype st="on">School</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Theology</st1:placename> at <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Claremont</st1:place></st1:city>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yuan, Chang-rue <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">1993 The Big Tree Worship among <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Taiwan</st1:place></st1:country-region> Folk Society. <st1:country-region st="on">Taiwan</st1:country-region>: The <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Museum</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Taiwan</st1:placename></st1:place>.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 150%;" lang="EN-US">Yu, Chun-fang <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <span style="font-family: arial;font-size:85%;" ><b style=""><span style="" lang="EN-US">1990 "Images of Kuan-yin in Chinese Folk Literature." Chinese Studies. Vol.8 no.1. pp. 221-285.</span></b></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com